The Oxford Handbook of
The Phoenician and Punic Mediterranean
The Oxford Handbook of
The Phoenician and Punic Mediterranean
Edited by
Carolina López-ruiz
and
Brian R. Doak
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ISBN 978–0–19–049934–1
ebook ISBN 978–0–19–005838–8
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Acknowledgments
We profusely thank all the contributors in this volume. A Herculean task like this requires patience, resilience, and responsiveness on all sides, and frequent nagging on our part. We are doubly grateful for those who stepped in later in the game to replace a handful of canceled chapters, and who did an outstanding job meeting the deadlines we set. Thank you everyone for bearing with us.
At different stages, several colleagues have offered invaluable advice with planning and other matters. Thank you, Manuel Álvarez Martí-Aguilar, Robert Hawley, Tamar Hodos, Philip Johnston, Anthony Kaldellis, Ana María Niveau, Dennis Pardee, Jonathan Prag, Jo Quinn, Brigitte Treumann, Peter van Dommelen, and José-Ángel Zamora. Thanks to Nora Clair and Esther Rodríguez for their help with some drawings and maps. We also thank Stefan Vranka, editor at Oxford University Press, for his support and advice throughout, and for believing that it could be done despite the obvious obstacle of the international and non-English-centered nature of the field of Phoenician studies. We also thank his assistant editors Lakshmanan Sethuraman and Palani Santhosh, and before them Emily Zogbi and John Veranes, as well as the copyeditors. We want to mention with gratitude the work of Luke Gorton, Linda Gosner, and Philip Johnston as translators of several chapters at our request, besides other translators commissioned directly by the authors. Finally, we thank Ayla Cevik who compiled the index for this volume.
Finally, with this volume we want to honor the memory of one of the most important figures in Phoenician archaeology of the last century, Lawrence E. Stager (1943–2017). Larry was initially going to contribute a piece on the tophet, but owing to health reasons he had stepped out. Sadly, he passed away before this volume reached completion. Larry Stager had been mentor and friend or colleague of several of our contributors as well as both editors, and he will be very much missed.
Contents
Abbreviations
List of Contributors
Introduction
1. Introduction
Brian R. Doak and Carolina López-Ruiz
2. Research Tools
Philip C. Schmitz
3. Birth and Prospects of a Discipline
Nicholas C. Vella
Part One: Histories
The East
4. Canaanite Roots, Proto-Phoenicia, and the early Phoenician Period: ca. 1300–1000 bce
Ann E. Killebrew
5. Phoenicia in the Later Iron Age: Tenth Century bce to the Assyrian and Babylonian Periods
Guy Bunnens
6. Tyre and Its Colonial Expansion
María Eugenia Aubet Semmler
7. Phoenicia Under the Achaemenid Empire
Vadim Jigoulov
8. The Hellenistic Period and Hellenization in Phoenicia
Corinne Bonnet
9. Phoenicia in the Roman Empire
Julien Aliquot
10. The Archaeology of Phoenician Cities
Hélène Sader
The West
11. Early Carthage: From Its Foundation to the Battle of Himera (ca. 814–480 bce)
Hédi Dridi
12. Classical-Hellenistic Carthage Before the Punic Wars (479–265 bce)
Dexter Hoyos
13. The Punic Wars (264–146 bce)
Christopher de Lisle
14. Carthage after the Punic Wars and the Neo-Punic Legacy
Matthew Hobson
Part Two: Areas of Culture
Language and Literature
15. The Language
Maria Giulia Amadasi Guzzo
16. Inscriptions
Madadh Richey
17. The Alphabet and Its Legacy
Madadh Richey
18. Phoenician Literature
Carolina López-Ruiz
Religion
19. Religion
Paolo Xella
20. Funerary Ritual
Mireia López-Bertran
21. The Tophet and Infant Sacrifice
Matthew M. McCarty
Material Culture
22. Pottery and Trade
Francisco J. Núñez
23. Art and Iconography
Eric Gubel
24. Levantine Art in the “Orientalizing” Period
Marian H. Feldman
25. Coins
John W. Betlyon
26. Metallurgy and Other Technologies
Philip Andrew Johnston and Brett Kaufman
27. Seafaring and Shipwreck Archaeology
Jeffrey P. Emanuel
28. Residential Architecture
Roald Docter
29. Agriculture
Carlos Gómez Bellard
Part Three: Regional Studies and Interactions
30. The Levant
Gunnar Lehmann
31. Cyprus
Sabine Fourrier
32. The Aegean
Nikos Stampolidis
33. The Italian Peninsula
Jeremy Mark Hayne
34. Sardinia
Andrea Roppa
35. Sicily
Salvatore De Vincenzo
36. Malta and Gozo
Nicholas C. Vella and Maxine Anastasi
37. Ibiza
Benjamí Costa
38. The Iberian Peninsula
Joseˊ Luis López Castro
39. Phoenicians in Portugal
Ana Margarida Arruda
40. The Gadir–Tyre Axis
Manuel Álvarez Martí-Aguilar
41. North Africa: From the Atlantic to Algeria
Alfredo Mederos Martín
42. Phoenician Exploration
Duane W. Roller
Part Four: Receptions
43. Phoenicians in the Hebrew Bible
Brian R. Doak
44. Phoenicians and Carthaginians in Greco-Roman Literature
Josephine Crawley Quinn
45. Neo-Phoenician Identities in the Roman Empire
Anthony Kaldellis
46. Phoeni
cians and Carthaginians in the Western Imagination
Brien K. Garnand
47. Phoenician Identity in Modern Lebanon
Claude Doumet-Serhal
48. Punic Heritage in Tunisia
Kathryn Lafrenz Samuels and Peter van Dommelen
Index
Abbreviations
ARE Breasted, J. H. 1906–1907. Ancient Records of Egypt: Historical Documents from the Earliest Times to the Persian Conquest. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
BAAL Bulletin d’Archéologie et d’Architecture Libanaises.
BABESCH Bulletin Antieke Beschaving.
BASOR Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research.
BICS Bulletin of the Institute of Classical Studies.
BNJ Worthington, I., ed. Brill’s New Jacoby (Fragments of Ancient Historians). Brill Online, http://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/brill-s-new-jacoby.
BNP Cancik, H., H. Schneider, and M. Landfester. Brill’s New Pauly. Brill Online, http://referenceworks.brillonline.com/browse/brill-s-new-pauly.
CIL Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum. Berlin-Brandenburg: Berlin-Brandenburgische Akademie der Wissenschaften.
CIS Corpus Inscriptionum Semiticarum, Pars Prima (1881–1962). Paris: E. Republicae typographeo.
CuPAUAM Cuadernos de Préhistoria y arqueologia.
DCPP Lipiński, E., ed. 1992. Dictionnaire de la civilisation phénicienne et punique. Turnhout: Brepols.
EHA Naveh, J. 1982. Early History of the Alphabet, an Introduction to West Semitic Epigraphy and Paleography. Jerusalem and Leiden: Magnes Press-Hebrew University and Brill.
FGrH Jacoby, F., ed. 1957–1958. Die Fragmente der griechischen Historiker. Second edition, commentary, 1954–1962. Leiden: Brill.
FrRH T. J. Cornell, ed. 2014. The Fragments of Roman Historians. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
HALOT Koehler, L., W. Baumgartner, and J. J. Stamm. 2001. Hebrew and Aramaic Lexicon of the Old Testament. Leiden: Brill.
IG Inscriptiones Graecae. Berlin 1873–. Ed. minor (IG2), Berlin 1924–. Berlin-Brandenburgische Akademie der Wissenschaften.
IK Guzzo Amadasi, M. G., and V. Karageorghis. 1977. Fouilles de Kition III: Inscriptions phéniciennes. Nicosia: Department of Antiquities.
JESHO Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient.
JKF Jahrbuch für kleinasiatische Forschung. Internationale orientalistische Zeitschrift.
KAI Donner, H., and W. Röllig. 1962–2002. Kanaanäische und aramäische Inschriften, I-III. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz.
KTU3 Dietrich, M., O. Loretz, and J. Sanmartín. 2013. Die keilalphabetischen Texte aus Ugarit, Ras Ibn Hani und anderen Orten. III., erweit. Auflage. AOAT 360/1. Münster: Ugarit.
NRSV New Revised Standard Version (Hebrew Bible).
PNA Baker, H. D., ed. 1998–2011. The Prosopography of the Neo-Assyrian Empire. Helsinki: Neo-Assyrian Text Corpus Project.
Reppal Revue du Centre d’Etudes de la Civilisation Phénicienne-Punique et des Antiquités Libyques.
RES Répertoire d’épigraphie sémitique publié par la commission du Corpus Inscriptionum Semiticarum (RES). 1900–. Paris: Imprimerie nationale.
RIMA Grayson, A. K. 1987–1996. The Royal Inscriptions of Mesopotamia, Assyrian Periods. Toronto: University of Toronto Press.
RINAP Frame, G., ed. 2011–. Royal Inscriptions of the Neo-Assyrian Period. Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns.
SEG Supplementum Epigraphicum Graecum I–XXV (ed. J. J. E. Hondius et al.) 1923–71, Leiden; XXVI–XXVII and XXVIII–XIIL (ed. H. W. Pleket et al.) 1978–79, Alphen; 1980–95, Amsterdam.
SAA State Archives of Assyria. Helsinki, 1987–.
SVA Bengtson, H., ed. 1975. Die Staatsverträge des Altertums: Die Verträge der griechisch-römischen Welt von 700 bis 338 v. Chr. Volume 2, second edition. Munich: C. H. Beck.
WO Die Welt des Orients.
ZAV Zeitschrift für Assyrologie und Vorderasiatische Archäologie.
List of Contributors
Julien Aliquot, French National Center for Scientific Research, CNRS, HiSoMA, Lyon
Maria Giulia Amadasi Guzzo, Sapienza Università di Roma
Manuel Álvarez Martí-Aguilar, University of Málaga
Maxine Anastasi, University of Malta
Ana Margarida Arruda, UNIARQ Centro de Arqueologia, Universidade de Lisboa
María Eugenia Aubet Semmler, Pompeu Fabra University, Barcelona
John W. Betlyon, Pennsylvania State University
Corinne Bonnet, Université Toulouse – Jean Jaurès
Guy Bunnens, Liège University
Benjamí Costa, Archaeological Museum of Ibiza and Formentera
Christopher de Lisle, University of Oxford
Salvatore De Vincenzo, Università degli Studi della Tuscia, Viterbo
Brian R. Doak, George Fox University, Newberg, Oregon
Roald Docter, Ghent University
Hédi Dridi, Université de Neuchâtel
Claude Doumet-Serhal, British Museum and University College, London
Jeffrey P. Emanuel, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachussets
Marian H. Feldman, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore
Sabine Fourrier, HiSoMA, Maison de l’Orient et de la Méditerranée Jean Pouilloux, Lyon
Brien K. Garnand, Howard University, Washington, D.C.
Carlos Gómez Bellard, Universitat de València
Eric Gubel, Royal Museums of Art and History, Brussels
Jeremy Mark Hayne, University of Glasgow
Matthew Hobson, University of Leiden
Dexter Hoyos, University of Sydney
Vadim Jigoulov, Morgan State University, Baltimore
Philip Andrew Johnston, Researcher in Residence, New York Public Library
Anthony Kaldellis, The Ohio State University
Brett Kaufman, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
Ann E. Killebrew, Pennsylvania State University
Kathryn Lafrenz Samuels, University of Maryland
Gunnar Lehmann, Ben-Gurion University
Mireia López-Bertran, Pompeu Fabra University, Barcelona
José Luis López Castro, Universidad de Almería
Carolina López-Ruiz, The Ohio State University
Matthew M. McCarty, University of British Columbia
Alfredo Mederos Martín, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid
Francisco J. Núñez, independent researcher
Josephine Crawley Quinn, University of Oxford
Madadh Richey, University of Chicago
Duane W. Roller, The Ohio State University
Andrea Roppa, University of Padova
Hélène Sader, American University of Beirut
Philip C. Schmitz, Eastern Michigan University
Nikos Stampolidis, University of Crete
Peter van Dommelen, Brown University, Providence
Nicholas C. Vella, University of Malta
Paolo Xella, University of Pisa
The Iron Age Mediterranean, ca. eighth?sixth centuries bce.
Source: E. Rodríguez.
The Iron Age Levant, ca. eighth-sixth centuries bce.
Source: E. Rodríguez.
Introduction
Chapter 1
Introduction
Brian R. Doak and Carolina López-Ruiz
The Phoenicians created the Mediterranean as we know it. They are the constantly underrated, even marginalized “third party” in a story written as a tale of Greek and Roman success. But it is no exaggeration to say that the world that the Greeks and Romans experienced, and to some extent the world we live in today, would have been quite different had the Phoenicians not existed. Greeks and Romans, and many others throughout the Mediterranean, may not have started using alphabetic writing when they did; hence, literacy and even the development of genres such as history or philosophy might have been delayed—even for centuries. Moreover, the Phoenician commercial and colonial expansion starting in the late ninth century bce laid out pan-Mediterranea
n networks and models on which the Greek’s own colonial expansion thrived. And were it not for Carthage’s grip on the central and western Mediterranean after 500 bce, Rome might not have engaged in the wars that led to its own expansion into Sicily, Sardinia, and Iberia, which proved to be the foundation of its empire outside of Italy. It was the Phoenicians who first explored the Atlantic shores of Africa and northern Europe (key sources of tin, codfish, and other goods) and integrated them into Mediterranean trade networks.
But this history was written by the eventual winners. The cultural heirs of the Greeks and Romans bestowed upon them the label of “Classical,” not undeservedly perhaps, as we still lean on their institutions and art forms. The Phoenicians, however, more than any other group, were an essential component of their histories, mythologies, and technological and artistic trajectories, and the Classical authors knew it. They wrote about this inescapable neighbor and rival from many angles (historiographical, geographical, political, mythographical, and fantastical), and even when we lost Phoenician literature and know next to nothing about how they saw themselves as a people, the Phoenicians still emerge as a dynamic and transformative force in other people’s narratives, be it of the Greeks, Romans, Israelites, or Assyrians. The Phoenicians thus remain both familiar and elusive. They are a puzzle that holds key pieces of the cultural, economic, and political history of the Mediterranean and, by extension, of Europe and the Middle East.
The Phoenicians were never lost from the sight of classicists, if only because of their part in the literary tradition, from Homer and Herodotos to the Aeneid. But with the development of archaeology as a discipline and of Near Eastern studies as a field, they acquired a greater historical and material corporality, as did the Etruscans, Celts, and others who had until then a purely literary existence. Interest in their legacy has suffered its ups and downs, following the nineteenth- and twentieth-century trends regarding the origins of the allegedly “Western” heritage and even its alleged racial lineage, straining the relations between the study of Classical and Near Eastern (read “Semitic”) studies and predetermining the views on how these cultures related to each other (see chapters on the history of scholarship and on the reception of the Phoenicians in this volume, chapters 3 and 46, respectively).
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