The Oxford Handbook of the Phoenician and Punic Mediterranean

by Carolina Lopez-Ruiz

  One of the most constant elements in Phoenician-Punic domestic architecture is the construction of mudbrick walls on stone socles of 20–50 cm height (Rouillard et al. 2007: 125; Arnold and Marzoli 2009: 442). Pisé interior walls, consisting of a beaten mixture of clay, sand, and lime, appear in Spain from the ninth and eighth centuries bce on (Gener Basallote et al. 2014: 23–25). The Oriental building type known as Opus Africanum, also known as “pier-and-rubble masonry,” was introduced in Carthage around the middle of the seventh century bce, for both interior and exterior walls (Niemeyer et al. 2007: 86–87, 96–97). Besides that, we encounter full ashlar masonry or Opus Quadratum from the mid-sixth century bce onward.

  Conclusion

  Thanks to recent publications of the increased number of excavated sites, our understanding of Phoenician-Punic domestic architecture has increased enormously. After discussing various aspects and particular cases, with Carthage standing out, three conclusions emerge: The most important is that what we call “residential” architecture in fact is characterized by a high level of functional permeability in which residential, agricultural, artisanal, commercial, and religious spheres mingled. Moreover, often there is no evidence of a strict separation between private and public space. Finally, and in a comparative Mediterranean perspective, Phoenician-Punic residential architecture shows a high level of technical ingenuity and sophistication.

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  Chapter 29

  Agriculture

  Carlos Gómez Bellard

  Any approach to Phoenician and Punic agriculture must take into account the fact that there are almost no texts about it, in contrast to what we possess for the Greek or Roman worlds. For the east, we can draw on some references from the Hebrew Bible, treated by David Hopkins (1985) for instance, or on older documents of the Canaanite period (Heltzer 1976). For the west, Classical agronomists like Cato or Columella have been studied in depth, but the problem is that they wrote centuries after the period we are interested in (Krings 2008). As for the only agricultural Punic text that we know (among the few Punic texts preserved at all), the famous treaty by Mago, few fragments have survived, as translated or adapted (Martin 1971; on Phoenician literature, see chapter 18, this volume). Thus we must turn to archaeology, with a preliminary consideration: Phoenician-Punic archaeology has centered on urban aspects and on cemeteries, on both sides of the Mediterranean. Only in the 1980s did syste
matic surveys begin, fostered by the good results achieved in the study of the Greek and Roman rural landscapes. Thanks to the surveys carried out in different areas of the Mediterranean and to the complete excavation of some farms, particularly in Ibiza and Sardinia, we have now a much richer—although still incomplete—view of that rural world (Van Dommelen and Gómez Bellard 2008; Pardo Barrionuevo 2015). The information available for the east is, in any case, scarce, in part owing to the difficult political situation existing since the 1970s in what were the lands of Phoenicia, which no doubt explains in some way the differences in research for both areas.