24 Dossiers with CVs, addresses and political past can be found in Chase, Enemies Within the Gates?, pp. 162–72 (document 17).
25 Wladislaw Hedeler, Chronik der Moskauer Schauprozesse 1936, 1937 und 1938: Planung, Inszenierung und Wirkung (Berlin, 2003), p . 234.
26 Müller, Menschenfalle Moskau, p. 262.
27 Müller (ed.), Die Säuberung: Moskau 1936, p. 458.
28 Ibid., p. 348.
29 Ibid., p. 380.
30 See Weinert on the Russian language as the ‘great snag’ to living comfortably in Russia, ibid., p. 460.
31 Ibid., p. 293.
32 Ibid., pp. 414–15.
33 Ibid., p. 187.
34 Hedeler (ed.), Stalinscher Terror 1934–41, p. 61.
35 Dimitroff, Tagebücher 1933–1943, vol. 1, p. 152 (entry of 6 March 1937).
36 Mayenburg, Hotel Lux, p. 191.
37 Markus Wolf, Die Troika (Reinbek, 1991), p. 28.
38 Berthold Unfried, ‘Kommunistische Künstler in der Sowjetunion der dreißiger Jahre: Kulturelle Mißverständnisse und Konkurrenz’, Jahrbuch für Historische Kommunismusforschung (2000–1), pp. 126–43.
39 Letter from M. I. Simenova to Georgi Dimitrov, and forwarded by him to Zhdanov, in Chase, Enemies Within the Gates?, pp. 302–3 (document 42).
40 Gábor T. Rittersporn, ‘Catching spies, trapping the system: spy mania in the prewar USSR’, paper presented at ‘Soviet War against Fifth Columnists, 1936–1945’, 36th national convention for the American Association for the Advancement of Slavic Studies, Boston, December 2004.
41 Chase, Enemies Within the Gates? p. 103.
42 Ibid., p. 243 (document 32).
43 Ibid., p. 241 (document 32) [translation slightly altered].
44 Ibid., p. 256 (document 32) [translation slightly altered].
45 Ibid., p. 104 [translation altered].
46 Directive of 22 March 1938, ibid., p. 295 (document 39).
47 List of those arrested 11 September 1937, ibid., pp. 309–18 (document 45).
48 Ibid., p. 320.
Chapter 27 Arcadia in Moscow
1 Guide to the City of Moscow: Handbook for Tourists, with Information on the City’s Past, Present & Future, Descriptions of its Museums and Points of Interest, including 6 Maps (Moscow, 1937), pp. 64–5.
2 Ibid., pp. 40–1.
3 A seminal account of leisure culture in the 1930s can be found in Katja Kucher, Der Gorki-Park: Freizeitkultur im Stalinismus 1928–1941 (Cologne and Weimar, 2007).
4 Vsia Moskva: adresno-spravochnaia kniga, 1936 (Moscow, 1936). The parks referred to here include the Central Park of Culture and Rest in Gorky Park, Krymsky Val 9; the Sokolniki Park of Culture and Rest, Ruskovskaya ulitsa 62; the Izmailovo Park of Culture and Rest, Narodnyi prospekt; the Krasnaia Presnia Park of Culture and Rest; and the Krasnopresnenskaia Zastava, Mantulinskaia ulitsa 5.
5 Vadim Volkov, ‘The concept of “kul'turnost'”: notes on the Stalinist civilizing process’, in Sheila Fitzpatrick (ed.), Stalinism: New Directions (London and New York, 2000), pp. 210–30.
6 For the programme of Gorky Park in the 1930s, see Kucher, Der Gorki-Park, pp. 109–85.
7 See chapter 19, ‘Year of Adventures’, in the present volume.
8 Nina Kosterina, Das Tagebuch der Nina Kosterina (Frankfurt am Main, 1981), p. 32.
9 Andrey Platonov, The Foundation Pit, trans. Robert Chandler and Geoffrey Smith (New York, 1996), p. 8.
10 Osip Mandelstam, ‘After having dipped one’s little finger’, in The Moscow Notebooks, trans. Richard and Elizabeth McKane (Newcastle upon Tyne, 1991), p. 52.
11 André Gide, Back from the USSR, trans. Dorothy Bussy (London, 1937), pp . 20–4.
12 General Ernst Köstring, Der militärische Mittler zwischen dem Deutschen Reich und der Sowjetunion 1921–1941, rev. Hermann Teske (Frankfurt am Main, 1965), pp. 124–5.
13 Kucher, Der Gorki-Park, pp. 248–9; for the figures, see the statistics in table 4, p. 255.
Chapter 28 ‘Avtozavodtsy’
1 Jelena Bulgakowa, Margarita und der Meister: Tagebücher, Erinnerungen (Berlin, 1993), p. 161.
2 This thesis was elaborated by Kenneth M. Strauss, Factory and Community in Stalin’s Russia: The Making of the Industrial Working Class (Pittsburgh, 1997). On the development of the Soviet working class, see Donald Filtzer, Soviet Workers and Stalinist Industrialization: The Formation of Modern Soviet Production Relations, 1928–1941 (Armonk, NY, 1986); Salomon M. Schwarz, Arbeiterklasse und Arbeitspolitik in der Sowjet-Union (Hamburg, 1953); Lewis Siegelbaum, Stakhanovism and the Politics of Productivity in the USSR 1935– 1941 (Cambridge, and New Rochelle, NY, 1988); Jeffrey J. Rossman, Worker Resistance under Stalin: Class and Revolution on the Shop Floor (Cambridge, MA, 2005).
3 John Scott, Jenseits des Ural: Die Kraftquellen der Sowjetunion (Stockholm, 1944), pp. 105, 280.
4 David L. Hoffmann, Peasant Metropolis: Social Identities in Moscow, 1929– 1941 (Ithaca, NY, and London, 1994), p. 150.
5 Strauss, Factory and Community in Stalin’s Russia, p. 228.
6 Ivan A. Likhachev, ‘Sovetskii avtomobil'’, in L. Kovaleva (ed.), Moskva (Moscow, 1935), p. 402.
7 Istoriia Moskovskogo avtozavoda imeni Ivana Alekseevicha Likhacheva (Moscow, 1966), p. 244.
8 Strauss, Factory and Community in Stalin’s Russia, p. 81; the number of employees in other factories, such as the Gorky car plant (GAS), grew even faster.
9 Ibid., p. 40.
10 Ibid., p. 219.
11 Ibid., pp. 70–7.
12 Likhachev, ‘Sovetskii avtomobil'’, p. 400.
13 A Biographical Dictionary of the Soviet Union 1917–1988 (London and elsewhere, 1989), p. 238.
14 Vladmir Andrle speaks of ‘class warrior to professional man’, in Managerial Power in the Soviet Union (Farnborough, 1976), p. 118.
15 Strauss, Factory and Community in Stalin’s Russia, p. 325.
16 Ibid., p. 162.
17 Ibid., pp. 246–9.
18 Istoriia Moskovskogo avtozavoda imeni Ivana Alekseevicha Likhacheva, pp. 219, 234, 240.
19 Strauss, Factory and Community in Stalin’s Russia, p. 56.
20 Likhachev, ‘Sovetskii avtomobil'’, pp. 401, 403.
21 Hoffmann, Peasant Metropolis, p. 54; Sergei Zhuravlev and Mikhail Mukhin, ‘Krepost' sotsializma’: povsednevnost' i motivatsiia truda na sovetskom predpriiatii 1928–1938 (Moscow, 2004).
22 Hoffmann, Peasant Metropolis, p. 70.
23 Ibid., p. 75 [translation modified].
24 ‘Za industrializatsiiu’ of 2 August 1937, quoted in Hoffmann, Peasant Metropolis, p. 91.
25 Likhachev, ‘Sovetskii avtomobil'’, p. 404.
26 Hoffmann, Peasant Metropolis, p. 140.
27 Ibid., pp. 135–6.
28 Ibid., pp. 87, 91.
29 Istoriia Moskovskogo avtozavoda imeni Ivana Alekseevicha Likhacheva, p. 243.
30 Wladislaw Hedeler, Chronik der Moskauer Schauprozesse 1936, 1937 und 1938: Planung, Inszenierung und Wirkung (Berlin, 2003), p. 675.
31 Istoriia Moskovskogo avtozavoda imeni Ivana Alekseevicha Likhacheva, pp. 238, 240.
32 Hoffmann, Peasant Metropolis, pp. 103–4; David L. Hoffmann, ‘The Great Terror on the local level: purges in Moscow factories, 1936–1938’, in J. Arch Getty and Roberta T. Manning (eds), Stalinist Terror: New Perspectives (Cambridge, 1993), pp. 163–7, here p. 167.
33 Hoffmann, Peasant Metropolis, p. 196; see also Roberta Manning, ‘The Soviet economic crisis of 1936–1938 and the great purges’, in Getty and Manning (eds), Stalinist Terror, pp. 116–41, here p. 138.
34 Hoffmann, Peasant Metropolis, p. 116.
35 Ibid., p. 124.
36 Ibid., p. 125.
37 Filtzer, Soviet Workers and Stalinist Industrialization, p. 200.
38 Istoriia Moskovskogo avtozavoda imeni Ivana Alekseevicha Likhacheva, pp. 239–45.
39 Robert W. Thurston, ‘Reassessing the history of Soviet workers: opportunities to criticize and participate in decision-maki
ng, 1935–1941’, in Stephen White (ed.), New Directions in Soviet History (Cambridge and New York, 1992), pp. 160–88, here p. 175.
40 Manning, ‘The Soviet economic crisis of 1936–1938 and the great purges’, p. 138.
41 On the dynamics of denunciation, see Jörg Baberowski, ‘“Die Verfasser von Erklärungen jagen den Parteiführern einen Schrecken ein”: Denunziation und Terror in der stalinistischen Sowjetunion 1928–1941’, in V. Friso Ross and Achim Landwehr (eds), Denunziation und Justiz: Historische Dimensionen eines sozialen Phänomens (Tübingen, 2000), pp. 165–98.
42 Wendy Goldman, Terror and Democracy in the Age of Stalin: The Social Dynamics of Repression (Cambridge, 2007), p. 184.
43 Wendy Goldman, ‘Stalinist terror and democracy: the 1937 union campaign’, American Historical Review 110/9 (2005), pp. 1427–53, here p. 1449.
44 Sheila Fitzpatrick, ‘Workers against bosses: the impact of the great purges on labor–management relations’, in Lewis H. Siegelbaum and Ronald Grigor Suny (eds), Making Workers Soviet: Power, Class, and Identity (Ithaca, NY, and London, 1994), pp. 311–40, here pp. 315–16.
45 Goldman: ‘Stalinist terror and democracy’, ibid.,pp.1427-53.
46 Goldman, Terror and Democracy in the Age of Stalin, p. 147.
47 Ibid., p. 182. See also V. I. Nosach and N. D. Zvereva, Rasstrelnye 30-e gody i profsoiuzy (St Petersburg, 2007).
48 Goldman, Terror and Democracy in the Age of Stalin, p. 245.
49 Goldman: ‘Stalinist terror and democracy’, ibid., pp. 1452–53.
Chapter 29 Dhzaz
1 I. Yampolskii, ‘Molodye sovetskie muzykanty’, Vecherniaia Moskva, 19 September 1937, p. 3.
2 On this musical triumvirate, see Matthias Stadelmann, Isaak Dunaevskij – Sänger des Volkes: Eine Karriere unter Stalin (Cologne, Weimar and Vienna, 2003); Dmitrii Mincenok, Isaak Dunaevskii: Bol'shoi kontsert (Moscow, 1998); Solomon Wolkow, Stalin und Schostakowitsch: Der Diktator und der Künstler (Berlin, 2004); Krzysztof Meyer, Dmitri Schostakowitsch (Leipzig, 1980); Elizabeth Wilson, Shostakovich: A Life Remembered (London, 2006); Laurel E. Fay, Shostakovich: A Life (Oxford, 2000); Antonina Revels, Riadom s Utësovym (Moscow, 1995). The works of all three composers are available in numerous recordings and performances.
3 The debate is discussed at length in a comparative study: Martin Lücke, Jazz im Totalitarismus: Eine komparative Analyse des politisch motivierten Umgangs mit dem Jazz während der Zeit des Nationalsozialismus und des Stalinismus (Münster, 2004), pp. 145–8; the book contains an extensive bibliography, pp. 215–45.
4 N. Labkovskii, ‘Utësov i ego dzhaz’, Vecherniaia Moskva, 19 July 1937, p. 3.
5 S. Frederick Starr, Red and Hot: The Fate of Jazz in the Soviet Union, 1917– 1980 (Oxford and New York, 1983), p. 111 .
6 Ibid., p. 119.
7 Ibid., p. 132.
8 Ibid., pp. 155–6.
9 Stadelmann, Isaak Dunaevskij – Sänger des Volkes, p. 28.
10 Ibid., p. 144.
11 Ibid., p. 170.
12 Starr, Red and Hot, p. 59.
13 J. Jelagin, Kunst und Künstler im Sowjetstaat (Frankfurt am Main, 1951), p. 168.
14 Stadelmann, Isaak Dunaevskij – Sänger des Volkes, p. 249.
15 For an evaluation of this period, see the special issue of Osteuropadedicated to the work of Dmitri Shostakovich: ‘Dmitrij Šostakovič: Grauen und Grandezza des 20. Jahrhunderts’, Osteuropa 8 (2006); Hans-Joachim Hinrichsen and Laurenz Lütteken (eds), Zwischen Bekenntnis und Verweigerung: Schostakowitsch und die Sinfonie im 20. Jahrhundert: Symposium Zürcher Festspiele 2002 (Kassel and Basel, 2005).
16 Jelena Bulgakowa, Margarita und der Meister: Tagebücher, Erinnerungen (Berlin, 1993), p. 126.
17 Wolkow, Stalin und Schostakowitsch, pp. 219, 250.
18 Ibid., pp. 225–6. For Shostakovich’s account of his relationship with Tukhachevsky, see Solomon Volkov (ed.), Testimony: The Memoirs of Dmitri Shostakovich, trans. Antonina W. Bouis (London and Boston, [1979] 1990), pp. 72–9.
19 Wolkow, Stalin und Schostakowitsch, p. 234.
20 Ibid., p. 241.
21 Meyer, Dmitri Schostakowitsch, p. 102.
22 Ibid., p. 100.
23 Dorothea Redepenning, ‘Chronist seiner Zeit: Dmitrij Šostakovič zwischen Ethik und Ästhetik’, Osteuropa 8 (2006) [special issue], pp. 5–24, here p. 13.
24 Ibid.
25 Bernd Feuchtner,‘Lieder der Nacht, Nächte der Angst: Angst in der Musik von Dmitrij Šostakovič’, Osteuropa 8 (2006) [special issue], pp. 61–74, here p. 64.
26 Stadelmann, Isaak Dunaevskij – Sänger des Volkes, pp. 146–7.
27 Isaak Dunaevskij, cited ibid., p. 155.
28 Richard Stites, Russian Popular Culture: Entertainment and Society since 1900 (Cambridge, 1992).
29 Starr, Red and Hot, p. 170; Martin Lücke, Jazz im Totalitarismus, pp. 142–4.
30 Stadelmann, Isaak Dunaevskij – Sänger des Volkes, p. 251.
31 Starr, Red and Hot, p. 172.
Chapter 30 Changing Faces, Changing Times
1 Photographs from the memorial collection in Butovskii polygon 1937: kniga pamiati zhertv politicheskich repressii, no. 8 (Moscow, 2004); see also Tomasz Kizny, Gulag: Life and Death inside the Soviet Concentration Camps (Richmond Hill, Ontario, 2004).
2 See chapter 7, ‘Blindness and Terror’, in the present volume.
3 ‘Document no. 233: Postanovlenie Politburo CK WKP(B), “O vvedenii fotograficheskikh kartochek na pasportakh”’, in Vladimir N. Khaustov, V. P. Naumov and N. S. Plotnikova (eds), Lubianka: Stalin i glavnoe upravlenie gosbezopasnosti NKVD 1937–1938 (Moscow, 2004), pp. 401–2.
4 David King, The Commissar Vanishes: The Falsification of Photographs and Art in Stalin’s Russia (New York, 1997).
5 See, for example, the portraits of deputies in Ogonek, no. 36 (1937) and no. 3 (1938).
6 For the image of the New Man, see Hans Günther (ed.), The Culture of the Stalin Period (London, 1990); and Hans Günther, Der sozialistische Übermensch: Maksim Gor’kij und der sowjetische Heldenmythos (Stuttgart and Weimar, 1993).
7 See Agitatsiia za schastie: sovetskoe iskusstvo stalinskoi epokhi (St Petersburg: State Russian Museum, 1994) [exhibition catalogue].
8 An illustration of a New Year’s ball can be found on the last page of Ogonek, no. 1 (1938).
9 Oleg V. Khlevniuk, 1937-j: Stalin, NKWD i sovetskoye obshchestvo (Moscow, 1992), p. 233.
10 Ibid., p. 234. On the rise of this generation, see also Aleksandr Zinov'iev, Stalin –nashei iunosti polet: sotsiologicheskaia povest' (Moscow, 2002).
Chapter 31 America, America
1 The history of the book’s publication has been reconstructed in the commentary by Boris E. Galanov, in Il'ia Il'f and Evgenii Petrov, ‘Odnoetazhnaia Amerika: putevye ocherki’, Sobranie sochinenii, vol. 4 (Moscow, 2003), pp. 551–3. The American edition appeared as early as 1937 as Little Golden America: Two Famous Soviet Humorists Survey these United States, trans. Charles Malamuth (NewYork and Toronto, 1937); the photo-reportages appeared in Ogonek nos. 11–23 (1936). An English-language edition of the photo-reportage has been published as Ilf and Petrov’s American Road Trip: The 1935 Travelogue of Two Soviet Writers, ed. Erica Wolf (New York, 2007).
2 Il'f and Petrov, ‘Odnoetazhnaia Amerika: putevye ocherki’, pp. 427, 431.
3 Il'f and Petrov’s American Road Trip, p. 127.
4 Ibid., p. 15.
5 Ibid., p. 5.
6 Ibid., p. 26.
7 Il'f and Petrov, ‘Odnoetazhnaia Amerika: putevye ocherki’, pp. 232–3.
8 Il'f and Petrov’s American Road Trip, p. 91.
9 Ibid., p. 101.
10 Il'f and Petrov, ‘Odnoetazhnaiya Amerika: putevye ocherki’, p. 233.
11 Ibid., p. 426.
12 Maksim Gor'kii, ‘Gorod zheltogo diavola’, in Sobranie sochinenii (Moscow, 1979); Charles Rougle, The Russians Consider America: America in the Works of Maksim Gorky, Aleksandr Blok, and Vladimir Mayakovsky (Uppsala, 1977).
13 A g
ood selection of the American pictures can be found in Aleksandr Deineka, Paintings, Graphic Works, Sculptures, Mosaics, Excerpts from the Artist’s Writings (Leningrad, 1982).
14 For a selection from Iofan’s American sketchbooks, see Isaak Iu. Eigel, Boris Iofan (Moscow, 1978); on the architects’ tour of America, see Isaak Yu. Éygel, ‘Der Tyrann und der Baumeister’, in Peter Noever (ed.), Tyrannei des Schönen: Architektur der Stalin-Zeit (Munich and New York, 1994), pp. 192–6.
15 Donald Leslie Johnson, ‘Frank Lloyd Wright in Moscow, June 1937’, Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians 46/1 (1987), pp. 65–79.
16 John Lewis Gaddis, Russia, the Soviet Union, and the United States: An Interpretative History (New York, 1978), pp. 102–25; Walter L. Carver: ‘Tractor is king in Soviet Russia, leading huge automotive plans’, Automotive Industries 56 (5 March 1932), pp. 375–8.
17 Kenneth M. Strauss, Factory and Community in Stalin’s Russia: The Making of the Industrial Working Class (Pittsburgh, 1997), p. 57.
18 Ilya Ilf and Evgeny Petrov, ‘Pisma iz Ameriki’, in Sobranie sochineniy, vol. 4 (Moscow, 2003), p. 516.
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