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Contents
I. Paris Occupied
II. De Gaulle and the Resistance
III. The Allies Advance
IV. The German Defense
V. The Resistance Rises
V.I Eisenhower Changes Plans
VII. Leclerc Moves Out
VIII. A Field of Ruins
IX. Day of Liberation
X. De Gaulle Triumphant
Acknowledgments
About the Author
Notes
Bibliography
Index
For Christine
I
Paris Occupied
“Paris has always fascinated me…. I could have marched at the head of my troops under the Arc de Triomphe; but I did not want, under any pretext, to inflict this humiliation on the French people after their defeat. I want no obstacle to this Franco-German entente, which will happen, I am sure.”
—ADOLF HITLER, PARIS, JUNE 28, 1940
German troops entered Paris in the early morning hours of June 14, 1940. There was no fighting, and no shots were exchanged. French general Maxime Weygand, the army’s commander in chief, had declared Paris an open city, and it was not defended. On June 10, the French government had fled first to Tours, then to Bordeaux, and the army withdrew shortly afterward. Unlike World War I, in which the French army defended the approaches to Paris successfully in 1914 and again in 1918, this time the army withdrew without a fight. The French leadership recognized that the war was lost, and chose not to defend the capital city. Paris, with a population of four million and incomparable art treasures and historic monuments, became German territory overnight. General Fedor von Bock, commanding German Army Group B, held a quick review of his troops at the Place de la Concorde early on the morning of June 14, and then had breakfast at the Ritz.
General von Bock saluting his troops entering Paris, June 14, 1940
The beginnings of World War II, and the history of France preceding it, must be understood to appreciate the significance of the German occupation of Paris. After German forces invaded Poland on September 1, 1939, Britain and France, honoring their diplomatic obligations, declared war on Germany. That decision was not popular in France. There were no supportive demonstrations in Paris or other French cities when war came, no ringing declarations of the righteousness of the war or the evils of Hitler’s regime. France mobilized an army of 2.6 million men. But they took up defensive positions, half on the Maginot Line, the other half on the Belgian border, ready to meet another German Schlieffen Plan that would outflank the French army by moving through Belgium, as in 1914. Many Frenchmen doubted the wisdom of the government’s going to war. The French right admired Hitler and Nazi Germany. For them, the war was indefensible. The left, though they despised Nazi totalitarianism, did not want war with any country, because of a devotion to pacifism and a conviction, taught in public schools since 1919, that war was an evil to be avoided at all costs. France’s enormous losses in World War I contributed to that feeling.
After the surprise signing of the Hitler-Stalin nonaggression pact on August 23, 1939, the Soviet Union joined Germany and invaded Poland on September 17, 1939. By September 29 that war was over. Germany and the Soviet Union divided Poland—the fourth time Poland had been dismembered—and Britain and France had done nothing to prevent it. Why the French did not attack Germany while the German army was deployed in Poland remains a mystery. As Field Marshal Wilhelm Keitel, the chief of the German high command, said later, “We soldiers had always expected an attack by France during the Polish campaign and were very much surprised when nothing happened…. A French attack would have encountered only a German military screen, not a real defense.”1
The decision of Stalin to join with Hitler complicated political alignments within France. The French Communist Party (PCF), under orders from Moscow, endorsed the partition of Poland and denounced France’s decision to join with Great Britain in an imperialist war against Germany. “The people of France have been assigned the mission of executing the orders of the bankers of London,” said the PCF in October.2
After the fall of Poland, France still did not attack Germany. Russia invaded Finland on November 30, but France was not involved. For the next five months the French and German armies faced each other without a shot being fired. The French called it drôle de guerre. The Germans called it Sitzkrieg. During that period French military morale suffered badly. It was largely a draftee army; pay was minimal, and with no fighting it seemed a waste of time. At the governmental level, Édouard Daladier, who had succeeded Léon Blum as prime minister in April 1938, resigned on March 20, 1940, and was succeeded by Paul Reynaud.
The situation changed abruptly on April 9, 1940, when Germany invaded Denmark and Norway. The Danish invasion took only four hours, and by noon on the 9th the Germans were in total control. No shots had been fired. In Norway, the exercise took longer, but the outcome was never in doubt. All of Norway’s ports as well as the capital of Oslo were captured by the Germans on the first day. The British fleet intervened briefly; a number of German vessels were sunk, and the port of Narvik was retaken. But resistance was marginalized, and Norway, like Denmark, became occupied.
The taking of Denmark and Norway was a prelude to what was about to happen. In Paris, Prime Minister Reynaud was distraught that his military leadership had not been able to assist Norway, and he began to doubt the competence of General Maurice Gamelin, the commander in chief of the army who had succeeded Maxime Weygand in 1935. But before he could replace Gamelin, the Germans invaded. Rather than an attack on the Maginot Line, or the mounting of another Schlieffen Plan through Belgium, the principal attack came in the Ardennes, directly between the two French forces. In 1934, Marshal Pétain, the hero of Verdun, in testimony before the French chamber of deputies, had said, “The Ardennes are impregnable…. As the front will have no depth, the enemy will not be able to engage in action there. And if he does, he will be picked up as he emerges from the forests. So this sector is not dangerous.”3 The French had planned accordingly.
The Germans decided exactly the opposite. Rather than attack the French in their dug-in positions, they would crash through the Ardennes (Figure 1). In what was known as the Manstein Plan, for Erich von Manstein, the chief of staff to General Gerd von Rundstedt, the Germans concentrated on breaking through the Ardennes and dividing French forces in two. In the early morning hours of May 10, Rundstedt’s Army Group A, led by General Heinz Guderian’s XIX armored corps, moved through the forest and mountains of the Ardennes with lightning speed. They pressed on to the Meuse River, and by May 15 had taken Dinant and Sedan.I
Figure 1: The Fall of France, May 1940
The Germans proved adept at tank warfare. When the invasion began on May 10, they had 2,580 tanks available. The French had 2,800, and most experts considered the French tanks superior. But the French tanks were distributed across the front into each division. All of the
German tanks were concentrated in the ten Panzer divisions that led Rundstedt’s army group through the Ardennes. It was no match. The French could not stop the German armor, and by May 20 the Germans had reached the English Channel. France was divided in two. Gamelin was relieved as the army’s commander in chief and replaced by Weygand, and Marshal Pétain, who had been France’s ambassador to Spain, became deputy premier, all to no avail. Belgium surrendered on May 28, and by June 4, the British Expeditionary Force, more than 300,000 men plus 130,000 French soldiers, were evacuated from Dunkirk. France north of the Somme was in German hands. No more than half of Weygand’s divisions remained. On June 10, Mussolini entered the war, and French forces were spread further.
Resistance proved futile. On June 12 Weygand ordered a general retreat; Paris was declared an open city, and the German army moved south quickly. On June 16, General Rommel’s armored division moved 240 kilometers through Brittany without firing a shot. Reynaud stepped down as prime minister on June 16 and was succeeded by Marshal Pétain, who immediately sought an armistice. On June 22, six weeks after the invasion began, the war was over. The armistice was signed in the same railroad car in the same forest clearing near Compiègne where the World War I armistice had been signed.
Under the armistice, which was intended to be a temporary agreement pending a formal peace treaty, Germany occupied much of northern France, the entire west coast, and Paris. Alsace and Lorraine were detached and became provinces in the Third Reich, and Italy was later awarded a small occupation zone in the Alps. (See Figure 2.) The purpose of the occupation was to facilitate Germany’s invasion of Great Britain, which was expected shortly. The costs of the occupation were to be paid by the French. Most important, the French government remained sovereign. It could choose where it wanted to be located, including Paris, but the occupied zone must conform to German authority.II The French army was demobilized and disarmed, and all of its equipment turned over to the Germans. Captured French soldiers remained in German custody, and, like Germany after the Versailles treaty, France was permitted an army of 100,000 men, but without heavy weapons.
Figure 2: Occupied France
The French navy was treated somewhat better. It was required to collect in French ports, but “the German government solemnly declares to the French government that it does not intend to use the French war fleet which is in harbors under German control for its purposes in war.”4 The armistice was signed for France by General Charles Léon Huntziger, who later commanded the hundred thousand men. Said Huntziger, “France has the right to expect in the future negotiations that Germany will show a spirit which will permit the two great neighboring countries to live and work in peace.”5
The armistice went into effect on June 25. Marshal Pétain spoke to the nation that day. Instead of acknowledging that France’s defeat was a result of military ineptitude, he suggested that French attitudes dominant in the Third Republic had brought about its downfall. “Our defeat came because of our slackness. The seeking of pleasures destroyed what the spirit of sacrifice had built up. I call upon you first of all for intellectual and moral redress…. A New Order begins.”6
The days of the Third Republic were numbered. Like many Frenchmen at the time, Pétain blamed the secular democracy of the Third Republic for France’s defeat. Or as the Catholic Church put it, France had received “divine retribution” for its godless ways. On July 3, Britain helped fuel the fire when under Churchill’s orders it destroyed much of the French fleet at the Algerian port of Mers-el-Kébir, killing 1,267 French sailors. The tension with Great Britain grew enormously, and Pétain broke off diplomatic relations.
Pétain, May 1940
When the Chamber of Deputies and the Senate met in the new capital at Vichy on July 9, the French representatives voted 624 to 4 that the constitution should be revised. As the historian Robert Paxton has noted, “The Assembly’s stand of July 9, 1940, was no revolution from above. It reflected almost unanimous French public opinion.”7 The following day, by a vote of 569 to 80, the Assembly installed Pétain with full power to lead the new French State. Pierre Laval became Pétain’s deputy, and the motto of the Third Republic, “Liberté, égalité, fraternité,” was replaced with “Travail, famille, patrie”—“Work, family, fatherland.” The French had voluntarily turned against the secular democracy of the Third Republic. Masculine dominance, anti-Semitism, and the leadership of the Roman Catholic Church became the order of the day. These were French decisions and not of German imposition.
President Roosevelt and the U.S. State Department quickly recognized the Pétain government. The American embassy was moved from Paris to Vichy, and FDR appointed Admiral William Leahy, the former chief of naval operations, to be ambassador. Leahy was an old friend of the president going back to the days when Roosevelt was assistant secretary of the navy in the Woodrow Wilson administration, and FDR believed that he and Pétain would hit it off together.
At the time, most French people believed that Great Britain would soon be defeated. The German army was also on its best behavior. “Keep Paris Paris” was the order of the day. Tourism was encouraged, and the city was soon filled with busloads of uniformed German troops. There was no resistance. It was difficult for the French to believe that the war was not over. Even the underground Communist newspaper L’Humanité urged a peace of reconciliation between French and German workers. Germans felt likewise. “Paris remains one of the jewels of Europe,” Hitler told his generals, and that attitude dominated the early occupation.8 As the Paris magazine L’Illustration wrote in the fall of 1940:
What struck us at the sight of the military men moving among us was their obvious youth. Under the feldgrau uniform, we could not distinguish social class or profession. But we could sense there were many intellectuals among the young people, university students who would take up their interrupted studies and who would profit from their visit to learn about French culture…. This occasion would help them, to their benefit, to see the real face of France, to be able to get to know its citizens, and to familiarize themselves with our customs and our spirit.9
Hitler in Paris, 1940
Given the subsequent resistance in Paris, it is difficult to remember that in 1940 not only did peace prevail, but almost everyone in France assumed that Germany would soon be the victor over Great Britain. Paris had opened its gates to the German army, and the army reciprocated. Paris became “Germanized” overnight. The combination of the effortless control and correct behavior exercised by the German army (unlike its later behavior in Eastern Europe) and the armistice that had preserved a portion of French honor made the occupation of Paris embarrassingly simple. As one scholar of the period has written, “Paris had become a suburb of Berlin.”10
To head the occupation, Hitler named sixty-two-year-old General Otto von Stülpnagel, who was then commanding German troops in Austria. Stülpnagel established the German headquarters in the Hotel Majestic, and did his best to ensure friendly relations. “If you want a cow to give milk, it must be fed,” he said in September 1940.11 He emphasized the need to cooperate with French industry, deplored the confiscation of Jewish art collections, and resisted orders from Berlin to execute large numbers of hostages. In February 1942, when ordered by Field Marshal Keitel to execute imprisoned Communists and Jews, he submitted a bitter letter of resignation and retired from active duty.
He was succeeded by his cousin, General Karl Heinrich von Stülpnagel, who had been a combat general on the Russian front and was familiar with execution orders. At the same time, he despised Hitler and the Nazis, and would become a leading member of the military’s July 20, 1944, plot to assassinate the Führer. That afternoon, when told that Colonel Claus von Stauffenberg’s bomb had exploded in the room where Hitler was holding a meeting, he assumed the Führer was dead and ordered the arrest of all Gestapo and SS officers in Paris. The arrests took place, but that evening it became clear that Hitler had survived. The arrested men were released and Stülpnagel was recalled to Berlin. T
ried for treason by the People’s Court in Berlin on August 30, he was convicted and hanged that same day at Plötzensee Prison in Berlin. Both Stülpnagels were enthralled by Paris, and had done their best to preserve it unscathed.
The chief German diplomat in Paris was Otto Abetz, who was appointed ambassador to Vichy by Hitler but who chose to reside in Paris. Abetz was thirty-seven at the time, a close friend of Foreign Minister Joachim von Ribbentrop, and like the Stülpnagels, he was eager to keep Franco-German relations cordial. An art teacher before the war, he had helped found the Stolberg Circle, later known as the Franco-German Committee (Comité France-Allemagne), which promoted cultural exchanges. He had been married to a French woman since 1932, admired French culture, and immediately established as an appendix to the embassy a German Institute where Parisians could study German culture and learn the language. Throughout the occupation, the German army and the diplomatic corps did their best to observe the rules of international behavior. Whatever cruelty happened in Paris was the work of the Gestapo and SS, as well as the Vichy regime. Also like the Stülpnagels, Abetz often fought with the Gestapo and the SS. He remained in Paris until the liberation.
Life in Paris returned to normal almost immediately after the occupation began. Movie houses started showing films the following week. On July 31, barely six weeks since German troops entered the city, Sacha Guitry reopened the Théâtre de la Madeleine with his play Pasteur. The play ended with the audience rising to sing La Marseillaise, led by the German administrative head of Paris, General Harald Turner. The Paris Opera resumed on August 24 with Berlioz’s La Damnation de Faust, followed by Massenet’s Thaïs and Beethoven’s Fidelio. The Comédie-Française started performances on September 7 with a program designed by Vichy proclaiming hope for France because it was amending its errors of the past. On September 29, Field Marshal von Rundstedt attended the reopening of the Louvre.III At the Orangerie, on the Place de la Concorde, where Monet’s Nymphéas paintings hung, a retrospective of Monet and Rodin brought huge crowds.12
Liberation of Paris : How Eisenhower, De Gaulle, and Von Choltitz Saved the City of Light (9781501164941) Page 1
