29. Fischoff, et al. (2002–2003).
30. This survey was conducted in the early 2000s before the Twilight craze. Therefore, the results aren't confounded by this massively successful book/movie series. However, its findings may have anticipated the neo-vampire craze of the new millennium.
31. Banerjee, et al. (2008).
32. Lincoln and Allen (2004).
33. Thinking about movie viewing in terms of “before, during, and after” establishes a cyclical process. If someone goes to a movie and has an experience which they evaluate as positive, they will likely develop a preference for a particular genre or actor and seek to reproduce it in subsequent movie choices.
Chapter 6
1. This figure is a variation of Figure 1.1 inspired by Werner and Kaplan (1984). The symbol is the film, and the “referent” is divided up into multiple of levels of “images and sound” and “story.” It is important that the arrows go both ways. My example starts with perceptual details and move toward the overarching story; this approach has been described as “bottom-up” processing. However, viewers come to films with expectations about how stories work that impact the perceptual elements they pay attention to; this is “top-down” processing. Humans appear to engage in both types of processing simultaneously.
2. Classical Hollywood style is surveyed in Bordwell, Staiger, and Thompson (1985).
3. Cognitive psychology is an important sub-discipline of psychology and is summarized in numerous textbooks such as Sternberg and Sternberg (2011). Cognitive science is an interdisciplinary field that includes psychology, biology, computer science and philosophy. Neuroscience focuses on how the functioning of the brain and the rest of the nervous system impacts thinking and behavior.
4. Bordwell (1985; 1989a; 1989b), heavily influenced by early psychological studies of film by Munsterberg (1970) and Arnheim (1957), has written several seminal texts outlining a cognitive approach to narrative comprehension of film. Turner (1996) has made a similar case in regard to literature. Other early proponents of the cognitive turn in film studies include Noel Carroll (1988) and Edward Branigan (1992).
5. Grodal (1997), Tan (1996) and Plantinga (2009) are example of cognitive-based theories of film comprehension and emotion. Hogan (2003) provides an accessible overview of cognitive approaches in literature, film and art. Bordwell and Carroll (1996), and Plantinga and Smith (1999) compile a variety of essays on film that take cognitivism (as opposed to Lacanian interpretation) as their starting point.
6. See Anderson (1998) and Hochberg (1989) for overviews of film perception.
7. Anderson (1998: pp. 54--61).
8. Anderson (1998: pp. 99--101).
9. Hochberg (1989).
10. While most scholars agree that there is an interaction between cultural influence and innate endowment, the relative contribution of these factors remains controversial in all areas of the social sciences.
11. Bordwell (1985).
12. Chatman (1978) makes a similar distinction between story and discourse, while Bordwell (1985) borrows terms from Russian literary theory: fabula (story) and syuzhet (plot).
13. Bordwell (1989a: p. 49).
14. The way people are able to take the concept of “dog” and apply it to a variety of objects in the world is an example of a simple linguistic schema. A physicist's understanding of atomic structure is a more complicated schema.
15. Hogan (2003).
16. The state of modern emotion research is surveyed in Lewis, Haviland-Jones, and Barrett's (2008) edited volume.
17. Grodal (1997) and Plantinga (2009).
18. Tan (1996).
19. Mauss, et al. (2005) reported that behavioral, self-report, and physiological responses tend to be modestly correlated, supporting a connection between body, consciousness, and behavior.
20. See Mauss, et al. (2005) and Hoffner and Cantor (1991) for examples using adults and children respectively.
21. Mauss, et al. (2005).
22. Tomarken, Davidson, and Henriques (1990).
23. Hubert and de Jong-Meyer (1991).
24. Laan, et al. (1994) and Koukounas and Over (1997). Methods that involve contact between genitalia and laboratory equipment typically provoke giggles from my students, and indeed they are among the most intrusive social science methods. However, for ethical purposes, studies of human sexuality usually involve thorough education of participants before they make an informed decision to participate.
25. Rottenberg, Ray, and Gross (2007).
26. Yes, there are even hardened souls out there who would mock The Champ or laugh at Silence of the Lambs.
27. Holland (1989). There is some question as to whether the audience exposure part of the Kuleshov experiment was ever actually conducted or whether Pudovkin extrapolated from his own introspective observations. The experiment has been a reference point in film theory and provides a simple example of how an experiment in editing can be accomplished. I predict that Pudovkin and Kuleshov's hypothesis would stand up today.
28. This observation is consistent with Lacanian psychoanalysis’ claims that spectators “suture” juxtaposed scenes together.
29. Kraft (1991).
30. This pattern is often summarized in introductory film text books such as Barsam and Monahan (2010).
31. Aristotle (1967).
32. Schank and Abelson (1977).
33. Pouliot and Cowen (2007).
34. Wollen (1976).
35. Summarized from Carroll (1999: pp. 35--46).
36. This idea is closely related to Jung's archetypes discussed in Ch. 2 although the two concepts emerged from different theoretical traditions.
37. Hogan (2003).
38. Identification is a crucial issue in film theory, psychology and psychoanalysis. Similar terms include “involvement,” “engagement,” and “participation.” Grodal (1997) reviews some of the important variations of identification as used in film studies. While most of these subtleties are not relevant here, the nature of identification (in regard to type, intensity, and duration) can impact the effect of film on viewers discussed in Chapters and .
39. Hoffner (1995).
40. Summarized from Plantinga's (1999) application of Paul Ekman's (2007) theory of universal facial expressions.
41. Anderson, et al. (2006: p. 7).
42. Summarized from Hogan (2003: pp. 174--179).
43. Major theories of psychological interpretation are overviewed in Chapter .
44. Bordwell (1989a).
45. The tendency to isolate discrete processes is comparable to the tendency of medicine to divide up the body in various subsystems.
46. Hogan (2003: p. 3).
Chapter 7
1. Ebert (1986: pp. 173--174).
2. Kael (1976: pp. 247--251).
3. Thank you, Mom and Dad.
4. I didn't take the film entirely seriously. At a high school debate camp held in Georgetown, we amused ourselves by holding races up and down the infamous Exorcist stairs.
5. Some student reactions hardly reflect the film's reputation: “How could people ever have thought that was scary?,” “I laughed during the exorcism scenes,” and “That's nothing compared to Hostel.”
6. Kenneth Burke (1984) has noted that all living things are critics, using a trout's dilemma of whether or not to take the bait as a metaphor for the people, places and things that we either pursue or avoid.
7. Viewer preferences for types are considered in Chapter .
8. The psychology of entertainment is surveyed in edited volumes by Bryant and Vorderer (2006) and Zillmann and Vorderer (2000).
9. See discussion of emotions and comprehension in Chapter .
10. Freud (1960a).
11. Zillmann (2000).
12. Zillmann (2000).
13. Critics argue that many modern action movies are indeed random expressions of violence. Yet not all movies with explosions and gunfire are successful, leading to the probability that even action films draw something from
character and plot.
14. Dispositional theory is reviewed in Zillmann (2011).
15. Zillmann (2006).
16. See Weaver and Tamborini (1996) for overview of research on horror.
17. Tamborini and Stiff (1987).
18. The Alien series has a third and fourth installment, but they weren't financially or critically successful. The fact that they do not end well is consistent with my point.
19. The tendency of the virgin female characters to survive while sexually active female characters are killed is discussed in Chapter .
20. Oliver (1993).
21. Oliver (2008).
22. Oliver and Woolley (2011).
23. It is possible to see evaluation as a subtype of interpretation since judging a movie as enjoyable can be viewed as a form of meaning.
24. See overview of theoretical approaches to interpretation in Chapter .
25. Historical approaches have been used to look at the reception of many art and narrative forms. For example, Freedberg (1989) surveys the intense, visceral, and sometimes violent reactions that audiences have had to public displays of artworks (both low and high) over the centuries.
26. Mayne (1993: p. 148).
27. Staiger (2000: p. 162).
28. Gina Fournier (2007) offers an exhaustive historical look at the reception of a single film.
29. Fournier (2007: p. 31).
30. White and Robinson (1991: p. 29).
31. See overview of ideological approaches to film interpretation in Chapter .
32. Television has been given more attention than film in cultural studies. This is a reflection of the Marxist roots of the field since television viewing provides a more pervasive immersion in ideological messages than film viewing.
33. Morley (1980).
34. Ang (1985) and Liebes and Katz (1990) cover the reception of Dallas. The latter is the focus of my summary.
35. Reader response criticism has been advocated by many literary scholars such as Iser (1974), Bleich (1978) and Holland (1989). Tompkin's (1980) is a compilation of essays by key figures.
36. Holland (1986).
37. Young (1992).
38. Hill (1999).
39. Zillmann (2011).
40. Shaw (2004: p. 140--141).
41. Film scholars Mayne (1993) and Staiger (1992) explore various approaches to film spectatorship and reception, while edited volumes by Bryant and Vorderer (2006), Bryant and Zillmann's (1991) and Zillmann and Vorderer (2000) survey social science approaches to media reception and enjoyment.
42. Oliver and Woolley (2011).
43. Spectatorship approaches are overviewed in Chapter .
44. Quotes from the introduction to the first edition of Reading the Romance (pp. 3--4). They were removed from the 1991 second edition, because the author felt that the juxtaposition simplified the positions of the other scholars. While this may be true, putting such divergent quotes side by side is a useful rhetorical technique for highlighting the difference between textual interpretation and the lived experience of fans.
45. Bordwell (1989a).
Chapter 8
1. Block (2007).
2. Effects tradition has been subject to many overviews like Sparks (2010) an undergraduate text. Other texts such as Giles (2003) and Harris (1999) provide concise summaries of a variety of subdomains. Perse (2001) is a more advanced overview. Bryant and Oliver (2003) and Nabi and Oliver (2009) are edited volumes of contributions by many scholars in the field.
3. Ultimately the line between consciousness and nonconsciousness is not clear-cut. It is not an all-or-nothing phenomenon. Sometimes we are partially aware of things, other times we are aware of things and then forget them. Consciousness varies across time and is best understood as a continuum. The type of impact of a film will vary depending on factors such as when it was viewed, the conditions of viewing and recall, etc.
4. Blumer (1933).
5. Blumer and Hauser (1933).
6. Overviewed in Giles (2003).
7. See Sparks (2010) and Bryant and Zillman (2009) for historical summaries of effects research.
8. Key (1973).
9. Sparks (2010).
10. Perloff (2009).
11. These topics have been the frequent objects of content analysis discussed in Chapter .
12. The Snopes website for debunking media myths claims this widely reported incident has never been verified. Certain claims—T-shirt sales dropped 75% after the movie—are improbable based on the fact that even a successful film is only seen by a relatively small proportion of the population.
13. Hinds (1993).
14. Wilson and Hunter (1983).
15. Sparks (2010).
16. This is an example of the nonfiction media pointing a finger at its fictional counterpart.
17. Surette (2002).
18. Wilson and Hunter (1983).
19. Movie imagery even influenced how I see Harris and Klebold. I can't separate the image of them stalking the halls wearing flowing overcoats and holding high powered weapons from those of The Matrix and The Basketball Diaries.
20. See Kirsh (2006) for an overview, and Gentile (2003) for an edited overview of media and violence with a special focus on children.
21. One can safely conclude there is “a lot” of violence in the media, but for a more subtle look at the amount and type of violence, see Kirsh (2006).
22. Recent overviews of media and children include Singer and Singer (2001) and Strasburger and Wilson (2002).
23. Bandura, Ross, and Ross (1963).
24. In a fourth condition a film is shown that features an adult dressed like a cartoon cat; the aggressive behavior is staged using unrealistic props.
25. Eron (1963).
26. Huesmann and Eron (1986).
27. “Correlation does not imply causation” is a mantra taught in all social science research courses. While it's probably true that the more years of education one has, the more Woody Allen movies one has seen, it may not be the case that watching Woody Allen movies makes one smarter.
28. This distinction between “cause” and “contribution” is used by Grimes, Anderson and Bergen (2008) to distinguish between the “causationists,” those researchers who take a strong position that media violence alone causes negative behavioral effects, and the “contributionists,” who believe that media violence is one factor that interacts with many others.
29. Roskos-Ewoldsen and Roskos-Ewoldsen (2009).
30. Much of this research is summarized in Harris and Bartlett (2009) and Gunter (2002).
31. Collins et al. (2004).
32. However, in regard to college students, another study (Wilson and Liedtke, 1984) took a straightforward copycat approach and surveyed college students about which movies had been a “significant stimulus” for a sex act. 64% of the males and 39% of the females indicated that at least one film had inspired them (including 10, Endless Love, The Blue Lagoon, Saturday Night Fever, and An Officer and a Gentlemen).
33. Harris and Bartlett (2009).
34. Harris and Bartlett (2009).
35. Titus-Ernstoff et al. (2008).
36. Hazan, Lipton, and Glantz (1994).
37. Stoolmiller et al. (2010).
38. Mathai (1983).
39. Ballon and Leszcz (2007).
40. Ballon and Leszcz (2007); Bozzuto (1975); Hamilton (1978); and Tenyi and Csizyne (1993).
41. Bozzuto (1975).
42. Ballon and Leszcz (2007).
43. See Chapter .
44. Hoekstra, Harris, and Helmick (1999).
45. Harrison and Cantor (1999).
46. Johnson (1980).
47. Cantor (2009).
48. Cantor and Omdahl (1999).
49. Sparks and Cantor (1986).
50. Cantor, Wilson, and Hoffner (1986).
51. Singer and Singer (2005).
52. It is primarily for this reason that, despite my personal love of movies, my wife and I have chosen to limit screen expo
sure with our children while they are young.
53. Smith and Granados (2009).
54. Levine and Harrison (2008).
55. Mastro (2009).
56. Busselle and Crandall (2002).
57. Perse (2001).
58. Linz, Donnerstein, and Penrod (1988).
59. Jowett and O’Donnell (1992).
60. Gerbner et al. (2002)
61. McLuhan (1964).
62. Postman wrote his book in the 1980s. Today's prominence of the computer screen adds another dimension to his argument.
63. McLuhan, Postman, and other cultural critics typically don't refer to surveys or experiments, but they do share concerns about the negative impact of media on society. If one extrapolates the results of some effects studies across the culture, similar conclusions may be reached.
64. Strasburger and Wilson (2002).
65. Following Bandura, Ross, and Ross (1963), psychological theory has been overshadowed by a litany of atheoretical findings. This paucity of theory was documented in a content analysis by Potter and Riddle (2007). Recent attempts such as Nabi and Oliver's (2009) edited volume are designed to give the field more conceptual weight.
66. A variety of perspectives on public policy as it relates to media and children are discussed in Singer and Singer (2005).
67. Perse (2001: p. ix).
68. Sparks, Sparks, and Sparks (2009: p. 273).
69. Huesmann and Taylor (2003).
70. Freedman (2002: p. ix).
71. Trend (2007: p. 3).
72. See Huesmann and Taylor (2003: pp. 112, 130, 111) for the three claims, respectively.
73. Grimes, Anderson and Bergen (2008: p. 49).
74. In particular, the criticism seems to imply that a study must be perfectly randomly sampled, that there can be no variation in participant response, and that the measure for the study must exactly and completely capture the effect (the “construct”) of interest. Such studies do not exist in the social sciences.
75. I once attended a media effects presentation at a national communication convention where I asked a question about the experiential dimension of the participants in the study. I intended it as a friendly question to move the discussion into a slightly different direction. One of the researchers, however, took my question as an implied denunciation of the work and suggested I “go down the hall where the rhetoricians are doing that kind of thing.”
Psychology at the Movies Page 24
