24For more on Malintzin and her role, as well as the debates about her legacy, see Townsend, Malintzin’s Choices; and Matthew Restall, Seven Myths of the Spanish Conquest (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003), chapter 5.
25Schwaller and Nader, The First Letter from New Spain, p. 14.
26Williamson, The Penguin History of Latin America, p. 43.
27Schwaller and Nader, The First Letter from New Spain, p. 15.
28See, for instance, Camilla Townsend, “Burying the White Gods: New Perspectives on the Conquest of Mexico,” American Historical Review 108, no. 3 (2003): 659–87; John Charles Chasteen, Born in Blood and Fire: A Concise History of Latin America (New York: W. W. Norton, 2001), p. 49.
29For a detailed and nuanced reading of the conquest and how it has been subsequently written about, see Inga Clendinnen, “‘Fierce and Unnatural Cruelty’: Cortés and the Conquest of Mexico,” Representations, no. 33, Special Issue: The New World (1991): 65–100.
30Schwaller and Nader, The First Letter from New Spain, p. 15.
31For more on the document that outlines this, see ibid.; also Elliott, Empires of the Atlantic World, pp. 3–4; John Tate Lanning, “Cortes and His First Official Remission of Treasure to Charles V,” Revista de Historia de América 2 (1938): 5–29.
32Hassig, “The Collision of Two Worlds,” p. 77; Helen Nader, “The Spain That Encountered Mexico,” in Beezley and Meyer, The Oxford History of Mexico, p. 38; Schwaller and Nader, The First Letter from New Spain, pp. 15–16.
33Elliott, Empires of the Atlantic World, p. 4; Hassig, “The Collision of Two Worlds,” pp. 80–83.
34Hassig, “The Collision of Two Worlds,” pp. 86–88.
35Miguel León Portilla (ed.) and Angel María Garibay K. and Lysander Kemp (trans.), The Broken Spears: The Aztec Account of the Conquest of Mexico (Boston: Beacon Press, 1962), p. xix.
36Hassig, “The Collision of Two Worlds,” p. 88.
37Hernan Cortés, “Second Letter to the Crown, 1522,” in Pagden, Hernan Cortes: Letters from Mexico, pp. 101–4.
38See, for instance, Alfred W. Crosby, The Columbian Exchange: Biological and Cultural Consequences of 1492 (Westport, Conn.: Praeger, 2003); Charles C. Mann, 1493: Uncovering the New World Columbus Created (New York: Vintage Books, 2012).
39Nader, “The Spain That Encountered Mexico,” p. 70.
40Williamson, The Penguin History of Latin America, p. 19.
41Seed, “Exploration and Conquest,” p. 79.
42Elliott, Empires of the Atlantic World, p. 5.
43Hassig, “The Collision of Two Worlds,” p. 90.
44Ibid., p. 91.
45Schwaller and Nader, The First Letter from New Spain, p. 17.
46Hassig, “The Collision of Two Worlds,” p. 102.
47Williamson, The Penguin History of Latin America, p. 20.
48Ibid.
49The source was the Florentine Codex, compiled by Fray Bernardino de Sahagún, who started the project around 1529, when he arrived in Mexico. He asked indigenous people many questions about their culture and about the arrival of the Spanish. They often answered in their unique pictorial form of writing, which Sahagún then, with the help of many Nahua people, transcribed and translated. Although not without its problems—not least regarding translations and accuracy—the work remains one of the few surviving sources with indigenous voices. See also Portilla, The Broken Spears, pp. 92–93.
50Seed, “Exploration and Conquest,” pp. 79–80; Williamson, The Penguin History of Latin America, pp. 21–22.
51MacLachlan, Imperialism and the Origins of Mexican Culture, pp. 21–22.
52Susan Elizabeth Ramírez, “Institutions of the Spanish Empire in the Hapsburg Era,” in Holloway, A Companion to Latin American History, pp. 106–7.
53Mark Burkholder, Spaniards in the Colonial Empire: Creole vs. Peninsulars? (Chichester, West Sussex: Wiley-Blackwell, 2013), p. 9.
54J. I. Israel, Race, Class, and Politics in Mexico, 1610–1670 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1975), pp. 5–6.
55MacLachlan, Imperialism and the Origins of Mexican Culture, pp. 198, 202.
56Elliott, Empires of the Atlantic World, p. 119.
57Jay Kinsbruner, The Colonial Spanish-American City: Urban Life in the Age of Atlantic Capitalism (Austin: University of Texas Press, 2005), p. 9.
58Susan Schroeder, “The Mexico That Spain Encountered,” in Beezley and Meyer, The Oxford History of Mexico, p. 71, Kindle.
59Kinsbruner, The Colonial Spanish-American City, pp. 9–10; Nader, “The Spain That Encountered Mexico,” p. 39.
60Williamson, The Penguin History of Latin America, p. 81; for more detail on Spanish planning laws in the Americas see Kinsbruner, The Colonial Spanish-American City; Axel I. Mundigo and Dora p. Crouch, “The City Planning Ordinances of the Laws of the Indies Revisited. Part I: Their Philosophy and Implications,” Town Planning Review 48, no. 3 (1977): 247–68.
61MacLachlan, Imperialism and the Origins of Mexican Culture, p. 201.
62Inga Clendinnen, Ambivalent Conquests: Maya and Spaniard in Yucatan, 1517–1570 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987), p. 47. See also Robert Ricard and Lesley Byrd Simpson (trans.), The Spiritual Conquest of Mexico: An Essay on the Apostolate and the Evangelizing Methods of the Mendicant Orders in New Spain: 1523–1572 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1966).
63Mark Burkholder and Lyman Johnson, Colonial Latin America, 5th ed. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004), p. 98.
64Linda A. Curcio-Nagy, “Faith and Morals in Colonial Mexico,” in Beezley and Meyer, The Oxford History of Mexico, p. 144.
65MacLachlan, Imperialism and the Origins of Mexican Culture, pp. 204–5.
66Clendinnen, Ambivalent Conquests, pp. 47–48.
67Williamson, The Penguin History of Latin America, p. 102.
68See, for instance, D. A. Brading, Mexican Phoenix: Our Lady of Guadalupe—Image and Tradition Across Five Centuries (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001).
69Lawrence A. Clayton, Bartolomé de Las Casas: A Biography (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2012), pp. 9, 14.
70Ibid., pp. 20–21.
71Ibid., p. 33.
72Ibid., pp. 55–56.
73Quoted in Lewis Hanke, All Mankind Is One: A Study of the Disputation Between Bartolomé de Las Casas and Juan Ginés Sepúlveda in 1550 on the Intellectual and Religious Capacity of the American Indians (De Kalb: Northern Illinois University Press, 1974), p. 4.
74Clayton, Bartolomé de Las Casas, pp. 55–56.
75Historia de las Indias, quoted in Parry and Keith, New Iberian World, vol. 2, pp. 291–300.
76Ibid.; Clayton, Bartolomé de Las Casas, p. 70.
77Charles Gibson, Spain in America (New York: Harper & Row, 1966), p. 40.
78For more on the Requirement and its Islamic roots, see Patricia Seed, Ceremonies of Possession in Europe’s Conquest of the New World, 1492–1640 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995), chapter 3.
79Clayton, Bartolomé de Las Casas, pp. 80–81.
80Ibid., p. 93.
81Ibid., p. 95.
82For more on the North African and Mediterranean roots of slavery, see chapter 4 of David Brion Davis, Inhuman Bondage: The Rise and Fall of Slavery in the New World (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008).
83Toby Green, The Rise of the Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade in Western Africa, 1300–1589 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011), pp. 187–88.
84Clayton, Bartolomé de Las Casas, pp. 102–3.
85Ibid., p. 426.
86See the Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade Database, http://www.slavevoyages.org/voyages/LffdfaeC (accessed January 3, 2018).
87At this time, Seville still had around thirty thousand slaves, though this number included Muslims from North Africa as well as enslaved people from sub-Saharan Africa. See Carmen Fracchia, “Depicting the Iberian African in New Spain,” in Jean Andrews and Alejandro Coroleu (eds.), Mexico 1680: Cultural and Intellectual Life in the “Barroco De Indias” (Br
istol, U.K.: HiPLAM, 2007), p. 48.
88Las Casas, A Short Account of the Destruction of the Indies, p. 10.
89Ibid., p. 15.
90Ibid., p. 24.
91Pagden, “Introduction,” p. xxvii.
92William S. Maltby, The Black Legend in England: The Development of Anti-Spanish Sentiment, 1558–1660 (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1971), p. 15.
93Martine Julia Van Ittersum, Profit and Principle: Hugo Grotius, Natural Rights Theories and the Rise of Dutch Power in the East Indies 1595–1615 (Leiden: Brill, 2006), p. 59.
94Felipe II, however, did not take the title of Holy Roman emperor, which went instead to his uncle, Ferdinand I. See Elliott, Empires of the Atlantic World, p. 119.
95Quoted in Irene Silverblatt, “The Black Legend and Global Conspiracies: Spain, the Inquisition, and the Emerging Modern World,” in Margaret R. Greer, Walter D. Mignolo, and Maureen Quilligan (eds.), Rereading the Black Legend: The Discourses of Religious and Racial Difference in the Renaissance Empires (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2007), p. 99.
96Las Casas, A Short Account of the Destruction of the Indies, pp. 12–13.
97Van Ittersum, Profit and Principle, pp. 55, 63.
98Clayton, Bartolomé de Las Casas, p. 347.
99“Democrates Alter,” in Parry and Keith, New Iberian World, vol. 1, pp. 323–24.
100Ibid.
101Clayton, Bartolomé de Las Casas, p. 353.
102“In Defence of the Indians,” in Parry and Keith, New Iberian World, vol. 1, pp. 67–68.
103Ibid., p. 146.
104Las Casas’s manuscript and papers had been put in the care of the Dominicans, and by the early 1800s there was once again interest in publishing them, led in part by the Cuban historian José Antonio Saco. His efforts met with opposition by the Royal Academy of History, and this led Saco to criticize the organization for keeping the work—and its unflattering depiction of Spanish imperialism—buried. Saco won in the end, decades after his initial efforts, and publication began in 1875. For more on the long-running efforts to publish the manuscript, see Clayton, Bartolomé de Las Casas, pp. 409–10; Lewis Hanke, Las Casas, Historiador, Estudio Preliminar a La Historia de Las Indias (Mexico City, Mexico: Fondo de Cultural Economica, 1951), pp. 54–56.
105Worth, Discovering Florida, p. 18.
106Weber, The Spanish Frontier in North America, p. 29.
107Worth, Discovering Florida, p. 11.
108Weddle, Spanish Sea, pp. 95–108.
109Juan Ponce de León to the Spanish crown, February 10, 1521, translation in Worth, Discovering Florida, pp. 83–84.
110For a discussion of the sixteenth-century sources on the Fountain of Youth, see Worth, Discovering Florida, p. 9.
111Paul E. Hoffman, A New Andalucia and a Way to the Orient: The American Southeast During the Sixteenth Century (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1990), p. 8.
112Ibid., p. 4.
113Ibid., pp. 3–6, 42; Anna Brickhouse, The Unsettlement of America: Translation, Interpretation, and the Story of Don Luis De Velasco, 1560–1945 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2015), p. 27.
114Brickhouse, The Unsettlement of America, p. 27.
115Paul E. Hoffman, Florida’s Frontiers (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2002), p. 25; and Hoffman, A New Andalucia and a Way to the Orient.
116Hoffman, A New Andalucia and a Way to the Orient, p. 54.
117Lawrence S. Rowland, Alexander Moore, and George C. Rogers Jr., The History of Beaufort County, South Carolina, vol. 1, 1514–1861 (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1996), p. 18.
118Hoffman, A New Andalucia and a Way to the Orient, p. 61; Rowland et al., The History of Beaufort County, South Carolina, vol. 1, p. 19.
119Rowland et al., The History of Beaufort County, South Carolina, vol. 1, p. 18.
120Ibid.
121Hoffman, A New Andalucia and a Way to the Orient, p. 71.
122Ibid., p. 73.
123Ibid., p. 76.
124John Francis Bannon, The Spanish Borderlands Frontier, 1513–1821 (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1970), p. 22; Allman, Finding Florida, p. 20.
125Weber, The Spanish Frontier in North America, pp. 30–31.
126Worth, Discovering Florida, p. 20.
127Milanich, Laboring in the Fields of the Lord, p. 63.
128Ibid.
129Weber, The Spanish Frontier in North America, p. 53; Robin Varnum, Álvar Núñez Cabeza De Vaca: American Trailblazer (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2014), p. 61.
130Varnum, Álvar Núñez Cabeza De Vaca, p. 61.
131Ibid., p. 62.
132Cyclone Covey (trans.), Cabeza De Vaca’s Adventures in the Unknown Interior of America (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1983), pp. 8–9.
133Ibid., pp. 48–55.
134Kathleen DuVal and John DuVal (eds.), Interpreting a Continent: Voices from Colonial America (Lanham, Md.: Rowman & Littlefield, 2009), p. 32; Covey, Cabeza De Vaca’s Adventures in the Unknown Interior of America, pp. 55–60.
135Nicolás Kanellos et al. (eds.), Herencia: The Anthology of Hispanic Literature of the United States (New York: Oxford University Press, 2002), p. 37.
136Covey, Cabeza De Vaca’s Adventures in the Unknown Interior of America, p. 64.
137Ibid., pp. 125–26.
138See Allman, Finding Florida, pp. 14–15, for more on the false legend of de Soto discovering the Mississippi.
139Bannon, The Spanish Borderlands Frontier, 1513–1821, p. 23.
140Covey, Cabeza De Vaca’s Adventures in the Unknown Interior of America, p. 119.
141Ibid., p. 12.
142Milanich, Laboring in the Fields of the Lord, p. 69.
143Hernando de Soto to officials in Santiago de Cuba, July 9, 1539, translated in Worth, Discovering Florida, pp. 151–53.
144Varnum, Álvar Núñez Cabeza De Vaca, p. 83.
145Milanich, Laboring in the Fields of the Lord, p. 69.
146Weber, The Spanish Frontier in North America, p. 41.
147Bannon, The Spanish Borderlands Frontier, 1513–1821, p. 23; Milanich, Laboring in the Fields of the Lord, p. 75.
148Milanich, Laboring in the Fields of the Lord, p. 74.
149Allman, Finding Florida, p. 13.
150Weber, The Spanish Frontier in North America, p. 43.
151Hoffman, Florida’s Frontiers, p. 39.
152Herbert Ingram Priestley (ed.), The Luna Papers, 1559–1561, vol. 1 (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 2010), p. xxviii; Weddle, Spanish Sea, pp. 260–63.
153Milanich, Laboring in the Fields of the Lord, p. 76.
154Priestley, The Luna Papers, p. xxxv.
155Ibid., p. xxxvi.
156Priestly, The Luna Papers, pp. xl–xli; Weddle, Spanish Sea, p. 271.
157Weddle, Spanish Sea, pp. 274–75.
158Milanich, Laboring in the Fields of the Lord, p. 78; Weddle, Spanish Sea, pp. 276–77.
159Charles Arnade, “The Failure of Spanish Florida,” Americas 16, no. 3 (1960): 277.
160Seed, “Exploration and Conquest,” p. 76.
Chapter 2: St. Johns River, Florida
1Weber, The Spanish Frontier in North America, p. 51.
2Charles E. Bennett, Laudonnière & Fort Caroline: History and Document (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 2001), pp. 6, 13.
3Milanich, Laboring in the Fields of the Lord, p. 78.
4John T. McGrath, The French in Early Florida: In the Eye of the Hurricane (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2000), pp. 50–51.
5See ibid., chapter 4, for the detailed context of Ribault’s world and the significance of his career trajectory.
6Bennett, Laudonnière & Fort Caroline, p. 14.
7Charles E. Bennett, Three Voyages: René Laudonnière (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 2001), p. 23.
8J. Michael Francis, Kathleen M. Kole, and David Hurst Thomas, “Murder and Martyrdom in Spanish Florida: Don Juan and the Guale Uprising of 1597,” Anthropo
logical Papers of the American Museum of Natural History, no. 95 (2011): 26.
9Ibid., p. 27.
10Milanich, Laboring in the Fields of the Lord, pp. 45–46.
11See, for instance, John H. Hann, Indians of Central and South Florida, 1513–1763 (Gainesville: University of Florida Press, 2003).
12Patricia R. Wickman, “The Spanish Colonial Floridas,” in Robert H. Jackson (ed.), New Views of Borderlands History (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1998), p. 197.
13Jerald T. Milanich, The Timucua (Oxford: Blackwell, 1996), pp. 95–97; Amy Turner Bushnell, “‘None of These Wandering Nations Has Ever Been Reduced to the Faith,’” in James Muldoon (ed.), The Spiritual Conversion of the Americas (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2004), pp. 156–57; Wickman, “The Spanish Colonial Floridas,” p. 201.
14Randolf Widmer, “The Structure of Southeastern Chiefdoms,” in Charles Hudson and Carmen Chaves Tesser (eds.), The Forgotten Centuries: Indians and Europeans in the American South, 1521–1704 (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1994), pp. 125–26; John H. Hann, “Political Leadership Among the Natives of Spanish Florida,” Florida Historical Quarterly 71, no. 2 (1992): 188.
15Hann, Indians of Central and South Florida, 1513–1763, pp. 78–79.
16Rowland et al., The History of Beaufort County, South Carolina, p. 23.
17Ibid., p. 24.
18H. P. Biggar, “Jean Ribaut’s Discoverye of Terra Florida,” English Historical Review 32, no. 126 (1917): 266–67.
19Ibid., p. 255; Rowland et al., The History of Beaufort County, South Carolina, p. 26.
20Report translated in Lucy L. Wenhold, “Manrique De Rojas’ Report on French Settlement in Florida, 1564,” Florida Historical Quarterly 38, no. 1 (1959): 45–62.
21Ibid., p. 54.
22Ibid., p. 61.
23Bennett, Laudonnière & Fort Caroline, p. 17.
24Ibid., pp. 9–11.
25Ibid., p. 21.
26Ibid., p. 31.
27Rowland et al., The History of Beaufort County, South Carolina, p. 27.
28Eugene Lyon (ed.), Pedro Menéndez De Avilés: Spanish Borderlands Sourcebooks (New York: Garland, 1995), p. xvii.
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