29Rowland et al., The History of Beaufort County, South Carolina, p. 26; Jean Parker Waterbury (ed.), The Oldest City: St. Augustine Saga of Survival (St. Augustine, Fla.: St. Augustine Historical Society, 1983), p. 24; Milanich, Laboring in the Fields of the Lord, p. 82.
30Milanich, Laboring in the Fields of the Lord, pp. 82–83.
31Ibid., p. 83.
32Ibid., p. 84.
33Waterbury, The Oldest City, p. 27.
34Rowland et al., The History of Beaufort County, South Carolina, p. 27.
35Milanich, Laboring in the Fields of the Lord, p. 84; Bennett, Laudonnière & Fort Caroline, p. 37.
36Hoffman, Florida’s Frontiers, p. 52.
37Milanich, Laboring in the Fields of the Lord, p. 84.
38Bennett, Laudonnière & Fort Caroline, pp. 9–11.
39Weber, The Spanish Frontier in North America, p. 49.
40Worth, Discovering Florida, pp. 31, 222–23.
41Parts of his memoria were not published until 1722. See Worth, Discovering Florida, p. 223.
42Gonzalo Solís de Merás translated in Worth, Discovering Florida, p. 245.
43Ibid., p. 250.
44Ibid., p. 251.
45On the complex formation of the casta system, see, for instance, María Elena Martínez, Genealogical Fictions: Limpieza De Sangre, Religion, and Gender in Colonial Mexico (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 2008).
46Worth, Discovering Florida, p. 262.
47Ibid., pp. 29–30.
48Brickhouse, The Unsettlement of America, see chapter 4.
49Translated “Memoria of Hernando de Escalante Fontaneda” in Worth, Discovering Florida, p. 207.
50Rowland et al., The History of Beaufort County, South Carolina, pp. 29–30.
51Weber, The Spanish Frontier in North America, p. 54.
52Rowland et al., The History of Beaufort County, South Carolina, p. 31.
53Ibid., pp. 31–32.
54Milanich, Laboring in the Fields of the Lord, p. 89.
55Lyon, Pedro Menéndez De Avilés, p. xix.
56Rowland et al., The History of Beaufort County, South Carolina, p. 32.
57“Fort San Juan,” North Carolina History Project, http://www.northcarolinahistory.org/commentary/168/entry (accessed December 7, 2015).
58McGrath, The French in Early Florida, pp. 157–60.
59Milanich, Laboring in the Fields of the Lord, p. 95; Rowland et al., The History of Beaufort County, South Carolina, p. 33; McGrath, The French in Early Florida, pp. 157–63.
60Lyon, Pedro Menéndez De Avilés, p. xxii.
61Hoffman, Florida’s Frontiers, p. 51.
62Milanich, Laboring in the Fields of the Lord, pp. 88–89.
63Rowland et al., The History of Beaufort County, South Carolina, p. 37; Francis et al., “Murder and Martyrdom in Spanish Florida,” p. 24.
64Rowland et al., The History of Beaufort County, South Carolina, p. 38; Milanich, Laboring in the Fields of the Lords, p. 105.
65John H. Hann, A History of the Timucua Indians and Missions (Gainesville: University of Florida Press, 1996), pp. 41–42.
66Hoffman, Florida’s Frontiers, pp. 58–59; Hann, A History of the Timucua Indians and Missions, p. 53.
67Rowland et al., The History of Beaufort County, South Carolina, p. 40.
68Ibid.
69Hoffman, Florida’s Frontiers, pp. 67–68.
70Ibid., p. 69.
71Worth, Discovering Florida, pp. 23–24.
72Ibid., p. 27.
73Milanich, Laboring in the Fields of the Lord, p. 89.
74Brickhouse, The Unsettlement of America, pp. 59–60.
75Ibid., pp. 47–48.
76Ibid., p. 98.
77Ibid., p. 1; see also pp. 284–86 on the possibility of a connection to the Nahua term “Aztlán.”
78Ibid., p. 55.
79Ibid., pp. 56–57.
80Ibid., pp. 62–63.
81Milanich, Laboring in the Fields of the Lord, p. 99. Also Weber, The Spanish Frontier in North America, pp. 54–55.
82Seth Mallios, The Deadly Politics of Giving: Exchange and Violence at Ajacan, Roanoke, and Jamestown (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 2006), pp. 54–55.
83Milanich, The Timucua, p. 95.
84Quoted in Brickhouse, The Unsettlement of America, p. 155.
85Quoted in Ramón A. Gutiérrez, When Jesus Came, the Corn Mothers Went Away: Marriage, Sexuality, and Power in New Mexico, 1500–1846 (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1991), p. 46; Weber, The Spanish Frontier in North America, p. 59.
86Bushnell, “‘None of These Wandering Nations Has Ever Been Reduced to the Faith,’” p. 149.
87Milanich, The Timucua, pp. 95–97.
88Ibid., p. 99.
89Bonnie G. McEwan, “The Spiritual Conquest of La Florida,” American Anthropologist 103, no. 3 (2001): 634.
90Ibid., p. 635.
91Jerald T. Milanich, “Tacatacuru and the San Pedro De Mocamo Mission,” Florida Historical Quarterly 50, no. 3 (1972): 287.
92Milanich, The Timucua, pp. 38–40.
93Bushnell, “‘None of These Wandering Nations Has Ever Been Reduced to the Faith,’” p. 156.
94Quoted ibid., p. 163.
95Milanich, Laboring in the Fields of the Lord, p. 33.
96Ibid., p. 132.
97A thorough account of this uprising can be found in Francis et al., “Murder and Martyrdom in Spanish Florida.”
98Ibid., pp. 13–14, 42.
99Ibid., pp. 41–42.
100Ibid., p. 42.
101Ibid., p. 43.
102Ibid., p. 47.
103Ibid., pp. 132–33.
104Ibid., p. 47.
105Ibid., p. 145.
106Ibid., p. 48.
107Milanich, Laboring in the Fields of the Lord, p. 50.
108Ibid., pp. 40–41.
109Ibid., p. 27.
Chapter 3: Alcade, New Mexico
1Colin G. Calloway, One Vast Winter Count: The Native American West Before Lewis and Clark (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2003), p. 132.
2Weber, The Spanish Frontier in North America, p. 22.
3Israel, Race, Class and Politics in Mexico, 1610–1670, p. 3.
4Covey, Cabeza De Vaca’s Adventures in the Unknown Interior of America, p. 141. As it happened, there were only six villages—not seven cities—in the Zuñi region. See Gutiérrez, When Jesus Came, the Corn Mothers Went Away, p. xxvi.
5Gutiérrez, When Jesus Came, the Corn Mothers Went Away, p. 42.
6Covey, Cabeza De Vaca’s Adventures in the Unknown Interior of America, p. 141.
7Quoted in Bannon, The Spanish Borderlands Frontier, 1513–1821, p. 16.
8Later the Spanish used the term cíbolo to describe the bison they saw in the West. See Weber, The Spanish Frontier in North America, p. 36.
9Kanellos et al., Herencia, p. 41.
10Ibid., p. 45.
11Ibid., p. 38.
12Bannon, The Spanish Borderlands Frontier, 1513–1821, p. 17; Weber, The Spanish Frontier in North America, pp. 37, 61.
13Calloway, One Vast Winter Count, p. 134.
14Ibid.
15Weber, The Spanish Frontier in North America, pp. 14–16.
16Gutiérrez, When Jesus Came, the Corn Mothers Went Away, p. xxi; John L. Kessell and Rick Hendricks (eds.), By Force of Arms: The Journals of Don Diego de Vargas, New Mexico, 1691–93 (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1992), p. 3.
17Ross Frank, “Demographic, Social, and Economic Change in New Mexico,” in Jackson, New Views of Borderlands History, p. 44; Michael V. Wilcox, The Pueblo Revolt and the Mythology of Conquest: An Indigenous Archaeology of Contact (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2009), pp. 103–4.
18James A. Brown, “America Before Columbus,” in Frederick E. Hoxie (ed.), Indians in American History (Arlington Heights, Ill.: Harlan Davidson, 1988), pp. 35–36; Gutiérrez, When Jesus Came, the Corn Mothers Went Away, pp. 12–14.
19Joseph L. Sánchez,
Robert P. Spude, and Art Gómez (eds.), New Mexico: A History (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2013), p. 10.
20Gaspar Pérez de Villagrá, Miguel Encianas, et al. (eds.), Historia de la Nueva México, 1610 (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1992), p. xxxi.
21Wilcox, The Pueblo Revolt and the Mythology of Conquest, p. 93.
22Calloway, One Vast Winter Count, p. 135.
23Gutiérrez, When Jesus Came, the Corn Mothers Went Away, p. 45.
24Matthew F. Schmader, “‘The Peace That Was Granted Had Not Been Kept’: Coronado in the Tiguex Province, 1540–1542,” in John G. Douglass and William M. Graves (eds.), New Mexico and the Pimería Alta: The Colonial Period in the American Southwest (Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 2017), pp. 53–54.
25Wilcox, The Pueblo Revolt and the Mythology of Conquest, p. 102; Calloway, One Vast Winter Count, p. 139.
26Calloway, One Vast Winter Count, p. 140; Gutiérrez, When Jesus Came, the Corn Mothers Went Away, p. 45.
27Weber, The Spanish Frontier in North America, p. 37.
28Calloway, One Vast Winter Count, p. 142.
29MacLachlan, Imperialism and the Origins of Mexican Culture, p. 5.
30Marc Simmons, The Last Conquistador: Juan De Oñate and the Settling of the Southwest (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1991), pp. 24–25; MacLachlan, Imperialism and the Origins of Mexican Culture, p. 228.
31P. J. Bakewell, Silver Mining and Society in Colonial Mexico: Zacatecas, 1546–1700 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1971), p. 14.
32Robert W. Patch, “Indian Resistance to Colonialism,” in Beezley and Meyer, The Oxford History of Mexico, p. 178.
33Bakewell, Silver Mining and Society in Colonial Mexico, pp. 131–32.
34Ibid., pp. 22–23.
35Ibid., pp. 44–47.
36Danna A. Levin-Rojo, Return to Aztlan: Indians, Spaniards, and the Invention of Nuevo México (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2014), p. 80.
37Simmons, The Last Conquistador, pp. 49–54.
38Calloway, One Vast Winter Count, p. 143; Gibson, Spain in America, p. 185.
39Simmons, The Last Conquistador, p. 55.
40Pérez de Villagrá, Historia de la Nueva México, 1610, p. xxvi.
41Calloway, One Vast Winter Count, p. 146.
42Pérez de Villagrá, Historia de la Nueva México, 1610, p. xxvii.
43Ibid., pp. xxvi–xxvii.
44“Instructions to Don Juan de Oñate,” October 21, 1595, originally in AGI Audiencia de México, Lejago 26, and translated in George P. Hammond and Agapito Rey (eds.), Juan De Oñate: Colonizer of New Mexico, 1595–1628, 2 vols., vol. 1 (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1953); Gutiérrez, When Jesus Came, the Corn Mothers Went Away, p. 47.
45Celia López-Chávez, Epics of Empire and Frontier: Alonso De Ercilla and Gaspar de Villagrá as Spanish Colonial Chroniclers (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2016), p. 95.
46Ibid., p. 92.
47Jill Lane, “On Colonial Forgetting: The Conquest of New Mexico and Its Historia,” in Peggay Phelan and Jill Lane (eds.), The Ends of Performance (New York: New York University Press, 1998), p. 53; Pérez de Villagrá, Historia de la Nueva México, 1610, p. 6.
48Calloway, One Vast Winter Count, p. 146.
49Pérez de Villagrá, Historia de la Nueva México, 1610, p. xxix.
50Simmons, The Last Conquistador, p. 106; Pérez de Villagrá, Historia de la Nueva México, 1610, p. xxx.
51Pérez de Villagrá, Historia de la Nueva México, 1610, p. xxxi.
52Calloway, One Vast Winter Count, p. 147.
53Pérez de Villagrá, Historia de la Nueva México, 1610, p. xxxvi.
54Sánchez et al., New Mexico: A History, p. 35.
55Calloway, One Vast Winter Count, p. 148; Sánchez et al., New Mexico: A History, p. 37.
56Calloway, One Vast Winter Count, p. 148.
57Ibid.; Weber, The Spanish Frontier in North America, pp. 63–64.
58Calloway, One Vast Winter Count, p. 149; William B. Carter, Indian Alliances and the Spanish in the Southwest, 750–1750 (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2009), p. 146.
59Calloway, One Vast Winter Count, p. 149; Pérez de Villagrá, Historia de la Nueva México, 1610, p. xxxix.
60Sánchez et al., New Mexico: A History, p. 42. More on this site can be found at https://www.nps.gov/elmo/learn/historyculture/the-spaniards.htm.
61Bannon, The Spanish Borderlands Frontier, 1513–1821, p. 40.
62Calloway, One Vast Winter Count, p. 150.
63López-Chávez, Epics of Empire and Frontier, p. 114.
64Pérez de Villagrá, Historia de la Nueva México, 1610, p. 5; Lane, “On Colonial Forgetting,” p. 284.
65Bannon, The Spanish Borderlands Frontier, 1513–1821, p. 41.
66Wilcox, The Pueblo Revolt and the Mythology of Conquest, p. 134.
67Phillip O. Leckman, “Meeting in Places: Seventeenth-Century Puebloan and Spanish Landscapes,” in Douglass and Graves, New Mexico and the Pimería Alta, p. 87.
68Kessell and Hendricks, By Force of Arms, pp. 5–6; Gutiérrez, When Jesus Came, the Corn Mothers Went Away, p. 82.
69Wilcox, The Pueblo Revolt and the Mythology of Conquest, p. 135.
70Calloway, One Vast Winter Count, p. 153.
71Leckman, “Meeting in Places,” p. 87.
72Carter, Indian Alliances and the Spanish in the Southwest, 750–1750, p. 158.
73Calloway, One Vast Winter Count, p. 151.
74Gutiérrez, When Jesus Came, the Corn Mothers Went Away, p. 81.
75Quoted ibid., p. 12.
76Baker H. Morrow (ed.), A Harvest of Reluctant Souls: Fray Alonso De Benavides’s History of New Mexico, 1603 (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 2012), pp. xi–xii.
77Ibid., p. xviii.
78Ibid., p. 15.
79Ibid., p. 17.
80Carter, Indian Alliances and the Spanish in the Southwest, 750–1750, p. 154.
81Kessell and Henricks, By Force of Arms, p. 6.
82J. Manuel Espinosa, The Pueblo Indian Revolt of 1696 and the Franciscan Missions in New Mexico: Letters of the Missionaries and Related Documents (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1988), p. 28.
83Kessell and Hendricks, By Force of Arms, p. 7.
84Ibid., p. 8.
85Espinosa, The Pueblo Indian Revolt of 1696 and the Franciscan Missions in New Mexico, p. 29.
86James E. Ivey, “‘The Greatest Misfortune of All’: Famine in the Province of New Mexico, 1667–1672,” Journal of the Southwest 36, no. 1 (Spring 1994): 82.
87Ibid., p. 78.
88Ibid., p. 83.
89Calloway, One Vast Winter Count, p. 170.
90Ann Ramenofsky, “The Problem of Introduced Infectious Diseases in New Mexico, AD 1540–1680,” Journal of Anthropological Research 52, no. 2 (Summer 1996): 161–63. Ramenofsky points out that there are only two direct references to disease outbreaks in New Mexico in the historical sources between 1540 and 1680.
91Carter, Indian Alliances and the Spanish in the Southwest, 750–1750, pp. 174, 187; Kessell and Hendricks, By Force of Arms, p. 6.
92Quoted in Ivey, “The Greatest Misfortune of All,” p. 76.
93Weber, The Spanish Frontier in North America, pp. 100–1.
94Calloway, One Vast Winter Count, p. 172.
95Ibid., p. 173.
96Espinosa, The Pueblo Indian Revolt of 1696 and the Franciscan Missions in New Mexico, p. 33; Calloway, One Vast Winter Count, p. 174.
97Calloway, One Vast Winter Count, p. 173; Dedra S. McDonald, “Intimacy and Empire: Indian-African Interaction in Spanish Colonial New Mexico, 1500–1800,” American Indian Quarterly 22, no. 1/2 (1998): 134–56.
98Calloway, One Vast Winter Count, p. 174.
99Antonio de Otermín to Francisco de Ayeta, September 8, 1680, in DuVal and DuVal, Interpreting a Continent, p. 253.
100Calloway, One Vast Winter Count, p. 175; Espinosa, The Pueblo Indian Revolt of 1696 and the Franciscan Missions in New Mexico,
pp. 34–35.
101Carter, Indian Alliances and the Spanish in the Southwest, 750–1750, p. 197.
102Calloway, One Vast Winter Count, p. 175.
103Ibid., p. 176.
104Matthew Liebmann, Robert Preucel, and Joseph Aguilar, “The Pueblo World Transformed: Alliances, Factionalism, and Animosities in the Northern Rio Grande, 1680–1700,” in Douglass and Graves, New Mexico and the Pimería Alta, p. 143.
105Kessell and Hendricks, By Force of Arms, p. 27; Liebmann et al., “The Pueblo World Transformed,” p. 144.
106Kessell and Hendricks, By Force of Arms, pp. 25–26.
107Ibid., p. 389.
108Ibid., pp. 397–98.
109Calloway, One Vast Winter Count, p. 190; Kessell and Hendricks, By Force of Arms, p. 357.
110Calloway, One Vast Winter Count, p. 191.
111Carter, Indian Alliances and the Spanish in the Southwest, 750–1750, pp. 203–4; Calloway, One Vast Winter Count, p. 195.
112Wilcox, The Pueblo Revolt and the Mythology of Conquest, chapter 5.
113Gutiérrez, When Jesus Came, the Corn Mothers Went Away, p. 157; Wilcox, The Pueblo Revolt and the Mythology of Conquest, p. 159.
114Gutiérrez, When Jesus Came, the Corn Mothers Went Away, pp. 150–51.
115Ibid., p. 151.
116James F. Brooks, “‘This Evil Extends Especially … to the Feminine Sex’: Negotiating Captivity in the New Mexico Borderlands,” Feminist Studies 22, no. 2 (1996): 283.
117Gutiérrez, When Jesus Came, the Corn Mothers Went Away, p. 149.
118Frank, “Demographic, Social, and Economic Change in New Mexico,” p. 51.
119Calloway, One Vast Winter Count, p. 202.
120Kevin Starr, California: A History (New York: Modern Library, 2005), p. 21.
121Mozelle Sukut (ed.), The Chronicles of California’s Queen Calafia (San Juan Capistrano, Calif.: Trails of Discovery, 2007), p. 17.
122Ibid., p. 19.
123Ibid., p. 43.
124Starr, California: A History, p. 21.
125Weber, The Spanish Frontier in North America, p. 34.
126Starr, California: A History, p. 25.
127Rose Marie Beebe and Robert M. Senkewicz (eds.), Lands of Promise and Despair: Chronicles of Early California, 1535–1846 (Santa Clara, Calif.: Heyday Books, 2001), p. 39.
128Starr, California: A History, pp. 26–27; Beebe and Senkewicz, Lands of Promise and Despair, p. 39.
129Beebe and Senkewicz, Lands of Promise and Despair, pp. 39–41.
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