El Norte

by Carrie Gibson

  33 Alan Knight, “Mexico, c. 1930–46,” in Bethell, The Cambridge History of Latin America, vol. 7, pp. 3–5.

  34 Joseph and Buchenau, Mexico’s Once and Future Revolution, p. 124.

  35 Knight, “Mexico, c. 1930–46,” pp. 19–20.

  36 Ibid., pp. 43–48; Joseph and Buchenau, Mexico’s Once and Future Revolution, pp. 132–33.

  37 St. John, Line in the Sand, p. 189.

  38 Starr, California: A History, p. 179; Kropp, California Vieja, p. 231.

  39 Henderson, Beyond Borders, p. 45; Francisco E. Balderrama and Raymond Rodríguez, Decade of Betrayal: Mexican Repatriation in the 1930s (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1995), p. 59.

  40 Balderrama and Rodríguez, Decade of Betrayal, p. 55.

  41 Rodriguez, Mongrels, Bastards, Orphans, and Vagabonds, p. 163; Carlos K. Blanton, “George I. Sánchez, Ideology, and Whiteness in the Making of the Mexican American Civil Rights Movement, 1930–1960,” Journal of Southern History 72, no. 3 (2006): 569–604; Balderrama and Rodríguez, Decade of Betrayal, p. 195.

  42 F. Castillo Nájera to Cordell Hull, September 26, 1940 NARA, RG 59: General Records of Department of State, Decimal File, from 811.4 to 811.4016/449, Box 3804, Folder 1: 811.40/7-811.4016/299, File 811.4016/272.

  43 Culbert L. Olson to Sumner Welles, April 11, 1941, ibid.

  44 Geraldo L. Cadava, Standing on Common Ground: The Making of a Sunbelt Borderland (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2013), p. 21, Kindle.

  45 Ibid., p. 23.

  46 Suarez, Latino Americans, loc. 1679.

  47 Richard Griswold del Castillo, “The Los Angeles ‘Zoot Suit Riots’ Revisited: Mexican and Latin American Perspectives,” Mexican Studies/Estudios Mexicanos 16, no. 2 (2000): 367.

  48 Mauricio Mazón, The Zoot Suit Riots: The Psychology of Symbolic Annihilation (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1984), p. 20.

  49 Luis Alvarez, The Power of Zoot: Youth Culture and Resistance During World War II (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2008), p. 2.

  50 Suarez, Latino Americans, loc. 1664.

  51 Starr, California: A History, pp. 230–34.

  52 Griswold del Castillo, “The Los Angeles ‘Zoot Suit Riots’ Revisited,” p. 370; Mazón, The Zoot Suit Riots, p. 2.

  53 Quoted in Alvarez, The Power of Zoot, p. 155.

  54 Henry S. Waterman to Secretary of State, June 11, 1943, NARA, RG 59: General Records of Department of State, Decimal File, from 811.4016/450 to 811.4016/637, Box 3805, File 811.4016/560.

  55 Ibid.

  56 Griswold del Castillo, “The Los Angeles ‘Zoot Suit Riots’ Revisited,” p. 369.

  57 Quoted ibid., p. 386.

  58 El Nacional (Mexico City), June 17, 1943, in NARA, RG 59: General Records of Department of State, Decimal File, from 811.4016/450 to 811.4016/637, Box 3805, File 811.4016/568.

  59 Griswold del Castillo, “The Los Angeles ‘Zoot Suit Riots’ Revisited,” p. 379.

  60 Ibid., pp. 369, 382.

  61 McWilliams, Stewart, and Gendar, Fool’s Paradise, p. 206.

  62 Carlos Kevin Blanton, “The Citizenship Sacrifice: Mexican Americans, the Saunders-Leonard Report, and the Politics of Immigration, 1951–1952,” Western Historical Quarterly 40, no. 3 (2009): 300.

  63 Steven H. Wilson, “Brown over ‘Other White’: Mexican Americans’ Legal Arguments and Litigation Strategy in School Desegregation Lawsuits,” Law and History Review 21, no. 1 (2003): 154.

  64 Rodriguez, Mongrels, Bastards, Orphans, and Vagabonds, p. 157.

  65 Blanton, “The Citizenship Sacrifice,” p. 300.

  66 Neil Foley, Mexicans in the Making of America (Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2014), p. 97.

  67 Suarez, Latino Americans, loc. 1522.

  68 Foley, Mexicans in the Making of America, p. 97.

  69 Ibid.

  70 Ibid., p. 100.

  71 Ibid., pp. 101–2.

  72 Ibid., p. 117.

  73 Thomas H. Kreneck, “Dr. Hector P. García: Twentieth Century Mexican-American Leader,” in Donald Willett and Stephen J. Curley (eds.), Invisible Texans: Women and Minorities in Texas History (Boston: McGraw-Hill, 2005), p. 207.

  74 See, for instance, Steve Rosales, “Fighting the Peace at Home: Mexican American Veterans and the 1944 GI Bill of Rights,” Pacific Historical Review 80, no. 4 (2011): 597–627.

  75 Kreneck, “Dr. Hector P. García,” p. 208.

  76 Ibid., pp. 208–9.

  77 Molina, “‘In a Race All Their Own,’” p. 192.

  78 Ibid., pp. 199–200.

  79 Roberto R. Treviño, “Facing Jim Crow: Catholic Sisters and the ‘Mexican Problem’ in Texas,” Western Historical Quarterly 34, no. 2 (2003): 141.

  80 Alonso Perales, “Lista que contiene los nombres de las poblaciones en Texas en donde se les ha negado servicio a los mexicanos,” University of Houston, Special Collections, Alonso S. Perales Papers, Box 8, Folder 5. 1944. Also available at http://digital.lib.uh.edu/collection/perales/item/65.

  81 William P. Blocker to Cordell Hull, February 27, 1940, “Transmitting Results of a Confidential Survey of the Problem of Racial Discrimination Against Mexican and Latin American Citizens in Texas and New Mexico,” NARA, RG 59: General Records of Department of State, Decimal File, from 811.4 to 811.4016/449, Box 3804, Folder 3: 811-4106/337-360.

  82 Ibid.

  83 Ibid.

  84 For more detail, see Thomas A. Guglielmo, “Fighting for Caucasian Rights: Mexicans, Mexican Americans, and the Transnational Struggle for Civil Rights in World War II Texas,” Journal of American History 92, no. 4 (2006): 1212; Foley, Mexicans in the Making of America, p. 79.

  85 Foley, Mexicans in the Making of America, pp. 83–84.

  86 Guglielmo, “Fighting for Caucasian Rights,” pp. 1220–30.

  87 Rosie Escobar to Hector García, October 29, 1951, Texas A&M University Corpus Christi, Mary and Jeff Bell Library, Hector Garcia Collection, Box 215, Folder 10.

  88 Rodriguez, Mongrels, Bastards, Orphans, and Vagabonds, p. 163.

  89 Suarez, Latino Americans, loc. 1657.

  90 Henderson, Beyond Borders, pp. 78–79.

  91 Ibid., pp. 62–63.

  92 Blanton, “The Citizenship Sacrifice,” p. 299.

  93 Ibid., p. 303.

  94 Lyndon B. Johnson to Hector García, October 13, 1949, Texas A&M University Corpus Christi, Mary and Jeff Bell Library, Hector García Collection, Box 223, Folder 5.

  95 What Price Wetbacks? 1953, Arizona State University, Hayden Library, Department of Archives and Special Collections, Chicano Research Collection CHI NM-37, p. 1.

  96 Ibid., p. 5.

  97 Michelle Hall Kells, Héctor P. García: Everyday Rhetoric and Mexican American Civil Rights (Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 2006), p. 132.

  98 Henderson, Beyond Borders, p. 58; Albert M. Camarillo, “Mexico,” in Mary C. Waters, Reed Ueda, and Helen B. Marrow (eds.), The New Americans: A Guide to Immigration Since 1965 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2007), pp. 508–9.

  99 Henderson, Beyond Borders, pp. 72, 85.

  100 Ibid., pp. 74–76.

  101 Ngai, Impossible Subjects, p. 258; Elizabeth Hull, Without Justice for All: The Constitutional Rights of Aliens (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1985), p. 24.

  102 Ngai, Impossible Subjects, p. 261.

  103 Henderson, Beyond Borders, p. 102; Ngai, Impossible Subjects, p. 261.

  104 Don Parson, Making a Better World: Public Housing, the Red Scare, and the Direction of Modern Los Angeles (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2005), p. 164; Ronald López, “Community Resistance and Conditional Patriotism in Cold War Los Angeles: The Battle for Chavez Ravine,” Latino Studies 7, no. 4 (2009): 459.

  105 Ibid.

  106 Parson, Making a Better World, p. 165.

  107 Ibid., p. 167.

  108 López, “Community Resistance and Conditional Patriotism in Cold War Los Angeles,” p. 460.

  109 Quoted ibid
., p. 467.

  110 Parson, Making a Better World, pp. 164–71.

  111 Ibid., p. 172

  112 Ibid., p. 173.

  113 Ibid., p. 174; López, “Community Resistance and Conditional Patriotism in Cold War Los Angeles,” p. 457.

  114 Parson, Making a Better World, p. 174.

  115 Ibid., p. 177.

  116 Nick Wilson, Voices from the Pastime: Oral Histories of Surviving Major Leaguers, Negro Leaguers, Cuban Leaguers, and Writers, 1920–1934 (Jefferson, N.C.: McFarland, 2000), p. 138.

  117 Ibid., pp. 141–42.

  118 Brioso, Havana Hardball, p. 70.

  119 Wilson, Voices from the Pastime, pp. 138–39.

  120 Ibid., p. 141.

  121 Adrian Burgos Jr., “An Uneven Playing Field: Afro-Latinos in Major League Baseball,” in Jiménez and Flores, The Afro-Latin@ Reader: History and Culture in the United States, p. 129.

  122 Wilson, Voices from the Pastime, p. 139.

  123 Brioso, Havana Hardball, p. 82.

  124 Wilson, Voices from the Pastime, p. 140.

  125 Ibid., p. 141.

  126 Burgos, “An Uneven Playing Field,” pp. 131–32.

  127 Ibid., pp. 133–34.

  128 Mark Armour and Daniel R. Levitt, “Baseball Demographics, 1947–2012,” Society for American Baseball Research, http://sabr.org/bioproj/topic/baseball-demographics-1947-2012 (accessed May 27, 2015).

  129 Robert B. Fairbanks, “The Failure of Urban Renewal in the Southwest: From City Needs to Individual Rights,” Western Historical Quarterly 37, no. 3 (2006): 303.

  130 Ibid., pp. 305–6.

  131 Ibid., p. 406.

  132 Robert B. Fairbanks, “Public Housing for the City as a Whole: The Texas Experience, 1934–1955,” Southwestern Historical Quarterly 103, no. 4 (2000): 429.

  133 Ibid., p. 409.

  134 Ibid., p. 423.

  135 Fairbanks, “The Failure of Urban Renewal in the Southwest,” p. 312. On these sorts of later schemes, see, for instance, Lydia Otero, La Calle: Spatial Conflicts and Urban Renewal in a Southwest City (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 2010), regarding the case of Tucson.

  136 James W. Loewen, Sundown Towns: A Hidden Dimension of American Racism (New York: New Press, 2005), p. 4.

  137 Ibid., pp. 75–76.

  138 Declarations of Restrictions: Homeowners Estates, Phoenix, AZ, 1950, Chicano Research Collection, Hayden Library, Arizona State University, ME CHI LC-3.

  139 Cadava, Standing on Common Ground, p. 13.

  140 Ibid., p. 82.

  141 David G. Gutiérrez, Walls and Mirrors: Mexican Americans, Mexican Immigrants, and the Politics of Ethnicity (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995), p. 2.

  142 Michael E. Martin, Residential Segregation Patterns of Latinos in the United States, 1990–2000: Testing the Ethnic Enclave and Inequality Theories (London: Routledge, 2007), pp. 8, 42–43.

  143 Menchaca, “Chicano Indianism,” p. 598.

  144 David Torres-Rouff, “Becoming Mexican: Segregated Schools and Social Scientists in Southern California, 1913–1946,” Southern California Quarterly 94, no. 1 (2012): 127.

  145 Menchaca, “Chicano Indianism,” pp. 597–98.

  146 Torres-Rouff, “Becoming Mexican,” p. 96.

  147 George I. Sánchez, Forgotten People: A Study of New Mexicans (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1940), pp. 17, 32.

  148 Ibid., pp. 13–14.

  149 Wilson, “Brown over ‘Other White,’” p. 155; Menchaca, “Chicano Indianism,” p. 598; Torres-Rouff, “Becoming Mexican,” p. 107.

  150 San Miguel Guadalupe, “The Struggle Against Separate and Unequal Schools: Middle Class Mexican Americans and the Desegregation Campaign in Texas, 1929–1957,” History of Education Quarterly 23, no. 3 (1983): 344.

  151 “Before ‘Brown v. Board,’ Mendez Fought California’s Segregated Schools,” http://www.npr.org/blogs/codeswitch/2014/05/16/312555636/before-brown-v-board-mendez-fought-californias-segregated-schools (accessed January 18, 2015).

  152 Menchaca, “Chicano Indianism,” pp. 598–99.

  153 Gary Orfield, Erica Frankenberg, Jongyeon Ee, and John Kuscera, Brown at 60: Great Progress, a Long Retreat and an Uncertain Future, Civil Rights Project UCLA. May 15, 2014, https://civilrightsproject.ucla.edu/research/k-12-education/integration-and-diversity/brown-at-60-great-progress-a-long-retreat-and-an-uncertain-future/Brown-at-60-051814.pdf (accessed April 3, 2018).

  154 Wilson, “Brown over ‘Other White,’” p. 148.

  155 Sheridan, Arizona: A History, p. 296.

  156 Gill, Harlem, pp. 353–54.

  157 Wilson, “Brown over ‘Other White,’” pp. 181–82.

  158 Ibid., p. 183.

  159 “School Desegregation in Corpus Christi, Texas,” May 1977, Texas A&M University Corpus Christi, Mary and Jeff Bell Library, Hector García Collection, Box 30, Folder 10.

  160 Draft of the Texas Advisory Committee’s Proposed Publication, October 22, 1976, Texas A&M University Corpus Christi, Mary and Jeff Bell Library, Hector García Collection, Box 9, Folder 16.

  161 González, Harvest of Empire, pp. 170–71.

  162 Ibid., p. 171.

  163 Kreneck, “Dr. Hector P. García,” p. 210.

  164 Wilson, “Brown over ‘Other White,’” p. 174.

  165 Raymond Telles to Hector García, April 2, 1966, Texas A&M University Corpus Christi, Mary and Jeff Bell Library, Hector García Collection, Box 195, Folder 48.

  166 Miriam Pawel, The Crusades of Cesar Chavez: A Biography (New York: Bloomsbury, 2014), p. 13.

  167 Ibid., p. 15.

  168 Rodriguez, Mongrels, Bastards, Orphans, and Vagabonds, p. 206.

  169 Quoted in Pawel, The Crusades of Cesar Chavez, p. 2.

  170 Rodriguez, Mongrels, Bastards, Orphans, and Vagabonds, p. 203.

  171 Ibid.

  172 David R. Mariel and Juan José Peña, “La Reconquista: The Chicano Movement in New Mexico,” in Gonzales-Berry and Maciel, The Contested Homeland, p. 270.

  173 Andrés Bustamante, “American Aztlán: Cultural Memory After the Mexican-American War,” presentation given at Legacies of Conquest conference, April 11, 2017, http://www.crassh.cam.ac.uk/events/26941.

  174 Rodriguez, Mongrels, Bastards, Orphans, and Vagabonds, p. 203.

  175 Gutiérrez, Walls and Mirrors, p. 185.

  176 Lorena Oropeza and Dionne Espinoza (eds.), Enriqueta Vasquez and the Chicano Movement: Writings from el Grito del Norte (Houston: Arte Publico, 2006), pp. 86–87.

  177 Nieto-Phillips, The Language of Blood, p. x.

  178 Ibid., p. xi.

  179 Ibid.

  180 Joseph A. Rodríguez, “Becoming Latinos: Mexican Americans, Chicanos, and the Spanish Myth in the Urban Southwest,” Western Historical Quarterly 29, no. 2 (1998): 166–67.

  181 Rodriguez, Mongrels, Bastards, Orphans, and Vagabonds, p. 212.

  182 Mariel and Peña, “La Reconquista,” p. 280.

  183 Ibid., p. 283.

  184 Quoted in Robert Urias, “The Tierra Amarilla Grant, Reies Tijerina, and the Courthouse Raid,” Chicano-Latino Law Review 16, no. 141 (Winter 1995): 148.

  185 FBI Memorandum, June 16, 1964, New Mexico History Collection, Center for Southwest Research, University Libraries, University of New Mexico, Reies López Tijerina Papers, 1954–2003, MSS 654 BC, Box 2.

  186 Alianza pamphlet, n.d., MSS 628 BC, Oversized drawer C9, Alianza Federal de Pueblos Libros Collection, 1963–1997, New Mexico History Collection, Center for Southwest Research, University Libraries, University of New Mexico.

  187 Urias, “The Tierra Amarilla Grant, Reies Tijerina, and the Courthouse Raid,” pp. 144–45; Lorena Oropeza, “Becoming Indo-Hispano: Reies López Tijerina and the New Mexican Land Grant Movement,” in Goldstein, Formations of United States Colonialism, p. 184.

  188 Oropeza, “Becoming Indo-Hispano,” p. 185.

  189 Ibid., p. 193.

  190 Urias, “The Tierra Amarilla Grant, Reies Tijerina, and the Courthouse Raid,” p. 1
50.

  191 Mora, Making Hispanics, p. 4.

  192 Pablo Guzmán, “Before People Called Me a Spic, They Called Me a Nigger,” in Jiménez Román and Flores, Afro-Latin@ Reader, pp. 235–36.

  193 Robert M. Utley, Changing Courses: The International Boundary, United States and Mexico, 1848–1963 (Tucson, Ariz.: Southwest Parks and Monuments Association, 1996), p. 100.

  194 Ibid., p. 101.

  195 Ibid., p. 109.

  Chapter 15: Miami, Florida

  1 Louis Pérez Jr., “Between Encounter and Experience: Florida in the Cuban Imagination,” Florida Historical Quarterly 82, no. 2 (2003): 178.

  2 Ibid.

  3 Ibid.

  4 Ibid.

  5 Ibid., p. 179.

  6 Ibid., p. 186.

  7 Ibid., pp. 179–80.

  8 Ibid., pp. 179–80, 189; Pérez, “Cubans in the United States,” p. 128.

  9 C. N. Rose, “Tourism and the Hispanicization of Race in Jim Crow Miami, 1945–1965,” Journal of Social History 45, no. 3 (2011): 736.

  10 Ibid.

  11 Pérez, Cuba and the United States, p. 245.

  12 “Impide el departamento de estado la salida de los Cubanos de su territorio,” Noticias de Hoy, February 1, 1961, p. 1.

  13 “Llegan a nuestra patria repatriados cubanos perseguidos en los Estados Unidos,” Noticias de Hoy, March 15, 1961, p. 11.

  14 Jack Kofoed, “Miami Already Has Too Many Refugees,” Miami Herald, October 5, 1965.

  15 Ibid.

  16 Pérez, Cuba and the United States, p. 254.

  17 María de los Angeles Torres, In the Land of Mirrors: Cuban Exile Politics in the United States (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2001), pp. 85, 100–101.

  18 Brendan I. Koerner, The Skies Belong to Us: Love and Terror in the Golden Age of Hijacking (New York: Crown, 2013), p. 35.

  19 Ibid., p. 37.

  20 Ibid., p. 50.

  21 Ibid., p. 45.

  22 Ibid., p. 48.

  23 Pérez, Cuba and the United States, p. 255.

  24 Ibid.

  25 María Cristina García, “Central American Migration and the Shaping of Refugee Policy,” in Dirk Hoerder and Nora Faires (eds.), Migrants and Migration in Modern North America: Cross-Border Lives, Labor Markets, and Politics (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 2011), p. 354.

  26 David M. Reimers, Other Immigrants: The Global Origins of the American People (New York: New York University Press, 2005). See chapter 5 on Central and South America.