75 Ayala and Bernabe, Puerto Rico in the American Century, p. 293.
76 Jens Manuel Krogstad, “Historic Population Losses Continue Across Puerto Rico,” Pew Research Center Fact Tank, March 24, 2016, http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2016/03/24/historic-population-losses-continue-across-puerto-rico/(accessed November 15, 2016).
77 Patricia Mazzei and Nicholas Nehamas, “Florida’s Hispanic Voter Surge Wasn’t Enough for Clinton,” Miami Herald, November 9, 2016, http://www.miamiherald.com/news/politics-government/election/article113778053.html (accessed November 15, 2016).
78 Ed Pilkington, “Puerto Rico Governor to Take Statehood Case to Washington but Faces US Snub,” Guardian, June 12, 2017, https://www.theguardian.com/world/2017/jun/12/puerto-rico-governor-washington-statehood-us (accessed September 1, 2017).
79 Frances Robles, Kenan Davis, Sheri Fink, and Sarah Almukhtar, “Official Toll in Puerto Rico: 64. Actual Deaths May Be 1,052,” New York Times, December 9, 2017, https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2017/12/08/us/puerto-rico-hurricane-maria-death-toll.html?_r=0 (accessed January 21, 2018).
80 Kyle Dropp and Brendan Nyhan, “Nearly Half of Americans Don’t Know Puerto Ricans Are Fellow Citizens,” New York Times, September 26, 2017, https://www.nytimes.com/2017/09/26/upshot/nearly-half-of-americans-dont-know-people-in-puerto-ricoans-are-fellow-citizens.html?mcubz=1 (accessed January 21, 2018).
81 Rebecca Spalding, “Puerto Rico to Lose Tax Advantages Under GOP Plan, Expert Says,” Bloomberg, December 16, 2017, https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2017-12-16/puerto-rico-to-lose-tax-advantages-under-gop-plan-expert-says (accessed January 21, 2018).
Epilogue: Dalton, Georgia
1 Interview with Beth Jordan, Dalton, Georgia, June 25, 2015.
2 Interview with Jennifer Phinney, Dalton, Georgia, June 2, 2015.
3 “Georgia Project,” The New Georgia Encyclopedia, September 25, 2009, http://www.georgiaencyclopedia.org/articles/education/georgia-project (accessed November 22, 2015).
4 Miriam Jordan, “Georgia Town Is Case Study in Immigration Debate,” Wall Street Journal (online) (accessed January 20, 2015).
5 See figures from Pew Research Center Hispanic Trends, http://www.pewhispanic.org/states/county/13313/ (accessed November 14, 2016).
6 Interview with Esther Familia-Cabrera, Dalton, Georgia, March 24, 2015.
7 Samuel p. Huntington, “The Hispanic Challenge,” Foreign Policy, no. 141 (2004): 31.
8 Toni Morrison, “Mourning for Whiteness,” New Yorker, November 21, 2016, http://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2016/11/21/aftermath-sixteen-writers-on-trumps-america (accessed November 13, 2016).
9 “Hispanic Population Growth and Dispersion Across U.S. Counties, 1980–2014,” Pew Research Center Hispanic Trends, September 6, 2016, http://www.pewhispanic.org/interactives/hispanic-population-by-county/ (accessed November 18, 2016).
10 Huntington, “The Hispanic Challenge,” p. 32.
11 Walter D. Mignolo, “Afterward,” in Greer et al., Rereading the Black Legend, p. 324.
12 Edna Ferber, Giant (New York: Perennial Classics, 2000), pp. 74–75.
13 Richard Simon, “Little-Remembered Revolutionary War Hero a Step Closer to Citizenship,” Los Angeles Times, July 10, 2014, http://www.latimes.com/nation/nationnow/la-na-nn-honorary-citizen-galvez-20140710-story.html (accessed March 31, 2016).
14 The following section draws from Cadava, Standing on Common Ground, chapter 6, Kindle.
15 Ibid., p. 244.
16 “Remains of Lost Spanish Fort Found on South Carolina Coast,” New York Times, July 26, 2016. For more on the Luna settlement, see http://uwf.edu/cassh/departments/anthropology-and-archaeology/luna-settlement/.
Index
Abarca de Bolea, Pedro (Count of Aranda), 116, 119
Abellán, José Luis, 2–3
Abreu, José, 368
Acadiana, 111
Acadians, 107, 111, 117
Acoma people, 62, 63, 67–68, 69, 80
Acts of Union (1707), 96
Adams, John Quincy, 171
Adams-Onis Treaty (1819), 174, 182, 183, 186
adelantado, 16, 33
Adrian of Utrecht (Pope Adrian VI), 26–27
Africans
in North America, 89–90
Portuguese slave trade, 27
Afro-Cubans, 273, 310, 367
AGIF (American GI Forum), 359, 373
agriculture, colonial period, 82
Agua Prieta (Mexico), 250
Aguilar, Jerónimo de, 18
Agustín I (Mexican caudillo), 177
Ahacus (one of the Seven Cities of Zuni), 60
Ais (Ays) people, 15, 42, 48
Aix-la-Chapelle, Treaty (1748), 104
Ajacán (Axacán, Virginia), 52, 53, 84
Alabama, 36, 42, 167, 168, 178, 394
Alabama people, 117
The Alamo (mission), 98, 198–200, 313–314
Alarcón, Hernando de, 61
Alaska, 78
Albizu Campos, Pedro, 332–333, 334, 339, 340, 341, 342, 343
Albuquerque (New Mexico), 63, 317–318, 369
Alcalde (New Mexico), 80
Alcaraz, Diego de, 35
Alexander VI (Pope), 10
Algonquin people, 94
Alianza Federal de Mercedes, 378
Alianza Hispano-Americana, 358, 373
“alien citizens,” 6
Allen, Charles Herbert, 276
Almonte, Jun Nepomuceno, 241
Alta California, 135, 216
Altamirano, Juan de las Cabezas, 57
Alutiiq people, 188
Alvarado, Juan Bautista, 187, 229
Alvarado, Pedro de, 21, 63
Alvarez de Pineda, Alonso, 30, 31
Alvarez, Julia, 329
Amelia Island, 162–163, 171
America
use of term, 3
See also United States
American exceptionalism, 2
American Revolution, 116–122
Amerindians, 12, 12n, 24. See also indigenous people; Native Americans
Anasazi people, 61
Anglo, use of term, 3n
Anglo-American Convention (1818), 174
Anglo-Indian mestizaje, 85
Annexation, Treaty of (1844), 205
Anza, Juan Bautista de, 141, 142
Anzaldúa, Gloria, 2, 392
Apache people, 62, 72, 74, 108, 110
Apache Wars, 249
Apalachee people, 34, 36, 42, 55, 57, 88, 90, 96, 115
Apalachicola people, 88
Apalachicola River, 112
Aranda, Count of (Pedro Pablo Abarca de Bolea), 116, 119
Arawak people, 12n
Aréchiga family, 366
Arenal pueblo, 63
Argentina, 175
Argonaut (ship), 131, 132
Arista, Mariano, 208
Arizona, 141, 226, 281
border fencing, 417
border skirmishes with Mexico (20th century), 302
education in, 373, 392
Enabling Act (1910), 286
English as official language, 394
exploration of, 79
indigenous people, 62
missions in, 79, 79n
railroads, 248
Roosevelt Dam, 304
San Xavier del Bac, 79
SB 1070, 418
Sonoran Desert border crossings, 416, 417
statehood, 284–287
threats: yesterday and today, 81
Arizona and New Mexico Railroad, 249
Arkansas, 37, 125, 153
Armstrong, John, 168
Arnaz, Desi, 331, 399
Arpaio, Joe, 419
Arredondo, Antonio de, 101
Arredondo, José Joaquín de, 165
Arroyo Hondo (Texas), 154
assimilation, 312–314, 397
Aubry, Charles-Philippe, 145
Augusta (Texas), 95
Augustinians, to New Spain, 24
Aury, Louis, 171
>
Austin, Moses, 184
Austin, Stephen, 184–185, 190, 192, 194, 201
Austin, Tyrone and Linda, 387
Axacán (Ajacán, Virginia), 52, 53, 84
Ayacucho, Battle of (1824), 175
Ayllón, Lucas Vázquez de, 32, 33
Ays (Ais) people, 15, 42, 48
Bahamas, discovery, 9
Bahía de Santa María, 50, 52
Baily, Francis, 128
Baja California, 109, 134, 135
Balboa, Vasco Núñez de, 76
Balbontín, Manuel, 213, 217
Bancroft, Hubert Howe, 253–254
Banderas, Antonio, 351n
Barbados, 87
Barceló, Carlos Romero, 344
Barela, Casimiro, 282
Bartlett-García Conde Compromise (1850), 223
baseball, 266–268, 364–368
Batista, Fulgencio, 384
Baton Rouge (Louisiana), 112
Bay of Pigs incident, 385–386
Baylor, John R., 242
“Bear Flag” party, 210
Beaubien, Carlos, 251
Beaubien-Miranda land grant, 251
Bellán, Esteban “Steve,” 267
Beltrán, Bernardino, 65
Benavides, Alonso de, 70–71
Benavides, Antonio de, 100
Bent, Charles, 210
Betances, Ramón Emeterio, 262
Beveridge, Albert, 272, 285
Biden, Joe, 410
Bienveile, Jean Baptiste Le Moyne, Sieur de Bienville, 94, 97
bilingual education, 392
Bilingual Education Act (1968), 392
Biloxi (Mississippi), 93, 112
Bimini, discovery of, 15
biological exchange, 20–21
“Black Legend” (leyenda negra), 28–29, 180, 313
Bloody Marsh, Battle of (1742), 104
Bobadilla, Francisco de, 12
Bodega y Quadra, Juan Francisco, 130, 133
Bolívar, Simón, 159
Bolivia, 175
Bolton, Herbert Eugene, 3, 319–320
Bonaparte, Joseph, 156
Bonaparte, Louis-Napoleon, 151–153, 156, 245
border fence. See United States-Mexico security fence
Border Industrialization Program (1965), 405
Border Security, Economic Opportunity, and Immigration Modernization Bill (2013), 416
borderlands, 2
Arizona border fencing, 417
Bolton on, 319
Chamizal, 380
drug trafficking, 409, 413–416
moral reformers and, 306
smuggling at Mexico-U.S. border, 305–306
Sonoran Desert border crossings, 416, 417
Boricua Popular Army, 345
Borinquén (Borikén), 14
Boston (Massachusetts), 88, 115
Boston Tea Party, 115
Bourbon reforms, 109
Bowie, Jim, 185
“bracero” program, 363
Brenner, Anita, 320–321
Brenner, Isidore, 320
Brevísima relación de la destrucción de las Indias (Las Casas), 28
British, use of term, 96
Brooklyn Dodgers, 366
Brown, Albert Galatin, 239
Brown v. Board of Education (1954), 372
Brownsville (Texas), 237
Brumidi, Constantino, 257–258
Bryan, William Jennings, 273, 294
Bucareli, Antonio María de, 141, 144
Buchanan, James, 232, 241
Buford (warship), 292
Bureau of Reclamation, 304
Burnet, David G., 195
Burr, Aaron, 155
Burton, Henry S., 254
Bush, George W., 403, 408
Bustamante, Anastasio, 191, 192, 202
Cabeza de Vaca, Álvar Núñez, 33–35, 59
Cabot, Sebastian, 41
Cabrillo, Juan Rodríguez, 77
Caddo confederacy, 94, 97
Caddo people, 36, 154, 183
Calcasieu River (Texas), 154
Calhoun, John C., 205, 215
California, 109, 134–140, 225
19th century, 176
assimilation, 234
bilingual education, 392
California Land Act (1851), 228
citizenship, 233–234
constitution of 1849, 233
English exploration, 77–78
Fugitive Slave Act (1852), 226, 231
Gold Rush, 225–226
Imperial Valley, 304, 307–308
indigenous people, 137–139
irrigation programs (20th century), 303–304
as an island, 134
joined the Union, 226
land claims, 250
land grants, 227–229
land speculation in, 226–227
Mexicans in, 186–187
missions in, 79, 135–136, 138–140
mob killings, 236
newspaper in, 229–232
origin of name, 77
Portuguese exploration, 78
Preemption act of 1841, 227–228
Secularization act (1833), 187
settlement and exploration, 76–79
slavery in, 230–231
Spanish Revival architecture, 315
“squatter” migrants, 227–228
statehood, 226
as territory, 186
California Land Act (1851), 228
Californios, 187, 229, 254, 315
Calle Ocho (Miami), 391
Caló (language), 355–356
Calusa people, 15, 31, 42, 47, 48, 55
Calvert, Cecilius, 88
Calvinists, 88
Calvo, Marqués de Casa, 153
Camero, Manuel, 138
Campbell, John, 118, 119
Canada, 93, 108, 129–133
Canales, Antonio, 211
Canales, José T., 302
Canary Islanders, 99, 105, 113
Cancel Miranda, Rafael, 342, 344
Cáncer, Luis, 52
Cape Canaveral (Florida), 45, 46
Cape Fear (North Carolina), 31–32
Cape Girardeau (Missouri), 125
Cape Mendocino (California), 78
Cárdenas, Lázaro, 353–354
Carib people, 12n
Caribbean islands, 38
Carlos (Calusa chief), 47, 48
Carlos II (King of Spain), 95
Carlos III (King of Spain), 109, 110, 111, 122, 125, 157
Carlos IV (King of Spain), 125, 151, 156
Carlos V (Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor), 21, 26, 28, 31
Carolina, 89, 90, 91
Carondelet, Francisco Luis Héctor, Baron de, 147, 150
Carranza, Venustiano, 293, 295, 296, 298, 299, 300, 301
Carson, Kit, 210
Carter, Jimmy, 344
Cartier, Jacques, 92
Casa de Contratación, 22
Caso y Luengo, Francisco, 172
casta hierarchy, 48, 76, 138
Castaño de Sosa, Gaspar, 65, 67
Castillo de San Marcos (fort), 91–92
Castillo Maldonado, Alonso del, 34
Castillo Nájera, Francisco, 355
Castillo San Felipe del Morro (Puerto Rico), 40, 91
Castillo y Lanzas, Joaquín María del, 195
Castro, Fidel, 374, 385, 387
Castro, Raúl, 420, 421
Cather, Willa, 248
Catherine II (Empress of Russia), 131
Catron, Thomas, 294
Cavendish, Thomas, 78
Caxcanes people, 64
Central Pacific Railroad, 248
Cerda, Agnes, 365
Cermeño, Sebastián Rodríguez, 78
Cerruti, Henry, 226–227
Céspedes, Carlos Manuel de, 261
Céspedes, Yoenis, 368
Cessation Act (1784), 122
Cevallos, Pedro, 153
cha-cha music, 331
Chacala (Baja California), 79
Chalca people, 21
Chamizal, 380
Champlain, Samuel de, 92
Chandler, Harry, 348
Chapultepec, Battle of, 213–214
Charles I (King of England), 88
Charles II (King of England), 89
Charles IX (King of France), 40
Charles Town (South Carolina), 89, 92, 96, 105
Charlesfort (South Carolina), 41, 42
Chávez, Carlos, 351
Chávez, César, 375–376
Chavez, Julian, 365
Chavez, Manuel, 243
Chepultepec Castle (Mexico City), 219
Cherokee people, 123, 126, 169, 189–190
Chesapeake Bay, 50, 84, 85
Chevalier, Michel, 246
Chicano movement, 376–378
Chicanos, use of term, 376
Chichimeca people, 64
Chickasaw people, 36, 97, 103, 113, 116
Chico and the Man (TV show), 399–400
El Chicorano (Francisco de Chicora), 31–32
Chilamne language, 137
children as refugees, 410
Childress, George, 199
Chile, 175
Chinese Exclusion Act (1882), 305
Chinese immigration, 305, 307
Choctaw people, 36, 113, 116, 117, 118
Cholulteca (Indian leader), 20
Cholulteca people, 21
Chumash people, 137
Chumash rebellion (1824), 187
Chutchui people, 138
Cíbola, 59, 65
Cinco de Mayo celebrations, 398–399
Cisneros, Francisco de Ximénez (Cardinal), 27
Cisneros v. Corpus Christi Independent School District, 373–374
citizenship
foreignness and, 6
Mexicans, 233
Pueblo right to, 234
Puerto Rico, 277–278, 335
Ciudad Juárez (Mexico), 380, 406
“Civil Disobedience” (Thoreau), 214
civil rights, inequalities for Hispanic people, 369–381
Civil War, 242–243
El Clamor Público (newspaper), 229–230
Clark, William, 153
Clay, Henry, 178, 206, 226
Clinton, Bill, 345, 390
Clinton, Hillary, 403
Club Cubano Inter-Americano, 327
Club Nacional Cubano, 310
Coahuila y Tejas (state), 189, 190
coartación, 148
Coast peoples, 137
Code Noir, 148
Código negro carolino, 149
Código negro español, 149
Cofitachequi (chiefdom), 36
Coimbre, Francisco “Pancho,” 367
Coligny, Gaspard de, 40
Collazo, Domingo, 278
Collazo, Oscar, 341, 342, 344
Colnett, James, 131–132
Colombia, 175, 280
Colonial period (Canada), 129–133
El Norte Page 70
