Smith, E. E. “Doc,” 204, 205, 206
SNARC, 203
SNDMSG, 384
Snow, C. P., 487
Snow White, 129
Snyder, Betty, 86, 97–99, 117
ENIAC’s glitch fixed by, 114
and public display of ENIAC, 113–16
social networking, 4, 400
software, 313–81
open-source, 261, 370–81
Software Publishing Industry, 121n
Sokol, Dan, 341
solid circuit, 173–74
solid-state physics, 134, 135–36, 138–41
Solomon, Les, 306, 308–9
Somerville, Mary, 14–15, 32
sonic waves, 95
Source, 392–93, 395, 400
source code, 322
Soviet Union, 247, 278
space program, 169
Spacewar, 200, 202, 204, 205–7, 209, 224, 320, 329, 388
speech-recognition technologies, 472
Spence, Frances Bilas, see Bilas, Frances
Spencer, Herbert, 2
Sperry Rand, 82, 83, 84n, 116
Sputnik, 169, 171, 228, 436
SRI, 255–56
Srinivasan, Srinija, 448
Stallman, Richard, 349, 370–73, 376, 379–80, 413, 438
Stanford Artificial Intelligence Lab (SAIL), 269, 281, 285, 286
Stanford Industrial Park, 199
Stanford Linear Accelerator Center, 415
Stanford Research Institute, 221, 252, 275
Stanford Research Park, 156
steam engine, 33
stepped reckoner, 20
Stevenson, Adlai, 116
Stibitz, George, 49, 50, 52, 58, 64, 75, 80, 104, 119, 133
store-and-forward switching, 238
Strachey, Oliver, 77
Strategic Air Command, 181, 251
subroutines, 28, 93
in ENIAC, 75
of video games, 205–6
Suess, Randy, 385
“Summit Ridge Drive,” 150
Sun Microsystem, 450, 463
surface states, 141
Sutherland, Ivan, 208, 231–32, 243, 252, 283
Swarthmore University, 67–68
Swimming Across (Grove), 190
Switchboards, 301
“Symbolic Analysis of Relay and Switching Circuits, A,” 49
symbolic logic, 17, 26, 49, 54, 58, 123, 344
Symbolics, 371
Syzygy, 210
Tanenbaum, Andrew, 374
Taylor, Bob, 216, 221, 224, 225, 229–33, 252, 276, 294, 385, 482
ARPA funding raised by, 235–37
Internet designed as decentralized by, 250
Kleinrocker criticized by, 245
on nuclear weapons myth of Internet origin, 247
On Distributed Communications read by, 241
online communities and, 261
PARC leadership style of, 287
personality of, 230, 234
recruited to PARC, 286–87
Robert’s hiring suggested by, 234
TCP/IP protocols, 259, 383
Teal, Gordon, 150
teamwork, innovation and, 1, 84, 85, 91–92, 108, 110, 246, 260, 479–86
Tech Model Railroad Club, 202, 203, 204, 207, 224, 288, 370–71, 483
technotribalism, 267–68
Teitelbaum, Ruth Lichterman, see Lichterman, Ruth
Tektronix, 433
Teledyne, 184–85, 187
telephones, 240, 241
television, 218
Teller, Edward, 102, 112, 113
Tennis for Two, 215
Terman, Fred, 136n, 156, 187, 199, 450
Terman, Lewis, 136–37
Terrell, Paul, 352
Tesla, Nikola, 448–49, 461
Texas Instruments, 149–50, 168, 171, 173–74, 177–78, 179, 482
military microchips by, 181
textiles, 33
Thacker, Chuck, 287, 291, 363
“That’s All Right,” 152
Third Wave, The (Toffler), 394
Thompson, Clive, 427
Time, 3, 218, 219, 248, 268, 390, 420
Time Inc., 420, 421–22
Times (London), 124
time-sharing, 224–26, 229, 242, 249, 384, 390
Time Warner, 3
Tocqueville, Alexis de, 265, 378
Toffler, Alvin, 394
Tolkien, J. R. R., 257
Tomlinson, Ray, 384
Tom Swift Terminal, 303
Tools for Conviviality (Illich), 302–3
TOPS-10, 321
Torborg, Jeff, 445
Torvalds, Linus, 349, 373–79, 380
traffic jams, 244
Traf-O-Data, 326–27, 329, 332, 333
transistors, 3, 48, 131–69, 174–76, 184, 243, 406, 480, 502–3
on ballistic missiles, 169
invention of, 131, 144–45, 150, 227, 414, 485
licensing fee for, 149–50
name coined for, 148
press conference for, 148–49
price of, 151, 184
production of, 150
for radios, 149–52
Shockley’s taking credit for, 145–49, 177
Transmission Control Protocol, 259
Trellix, 431
Triplanetary (Smith), 204n
Tri-Pos (Minskytron), 205, 206
Trips Festival, 269–71, 273, 278, 388
Truman, Harry, 219, 220, 263n
“Tube Relay and Techniques of Its Switching, The” (Schreyer), 54
Tuck, Hugh, 209–10, 215
Turing, Alan, 34, 40–47, 92, 101, 119
Bletchley Park code-breaking by, 77–78
Colossus and, 76
death of, 129, 500
on general-purpose computers, 87, 326–27, 406
homosexuality of, 41, 46, 128–29
influence of, 82, 84
spartan existence of, 102–3
stored-program computer of, 120, 242
on thinking machines, 29, 42, 122–29, 468, 485
Turing, John, 40
“Turingery,” 78–79
Turing Machine (Logical Computing Machine), 44–46, 47
Turing’s Cathedral (Dyson), 120
Turing Test, 124–28, 478
Watson and, 470
Turner, Ted, 391
Twitter, 433, 479–80, 485
2001: A Space Odyssey, 311, 468, 477
TX-2, 243
U-2 planes, 155
UCLA, 253, 255–56, 259
Ulam, Stanislaw, 113
Uniform Resource Locators, 411
Unisys, 116
Unitarian Universalist Church, 413–14
UNIVAC, 109, 116, 238, 274
UNIX, 372, 374, 375, 381, 389, 414
untyped lambda calculus, 46
uranium-235, 103
USCO, 269
Usenet, 386, 422
“Use of High Speed Vacuum Tube Devices for Calculating, The” (Mauchly), 73
vacuum tubes, 39, 48, 56, 58, 60, 61, 64–65, 73, 75, 79, 94, 133, 135
Shockley’s search for replacement for, 137, 141–45
Vail, Theodore, 132
Valentine, Don, 214n
Veblen, Oswald, 73–74, 120
Venrock Associates, 186
venture capital, 185–88, 189, 213–14
video games, 200, 201–15, 393
artificial intelligence and, 11
Vietnam War, 248, 278, 295, 299, 329, 397
Vinge, Vernor, 474
Virtual Community, The (Rheingold), 425
VisiCalc, 354, 355–56, 431
Vitruvian Man, 474
von Meister, William Ferdinand, 382, 390–94, 396, 397
von Neumann, John, 42, 46, 64, 77, 92, 101–5, 109, 110, 111–12, 118, 119, 134, 269
AI work of, 469, 472
atomic bomb work of, 103–4
death of, 104n
Goldstine’s first meeting with, 105–6
singularity coined by, 474
on stored memory, 110–11
stored-program computer work of, 105, 110–11, 120, 478
von Neumann, Klára, 119, 120
von Neumann, Nicholas, 102
Waldrop, Mitchell, 223
Wales, Ada, 446
Wales, Jimmy, 379, 435, 436–41, 442–44, 445–46
Wall Street Journal, 167, 363
Wang, 356
War Department, U.S., 68, 73, 115
Warnock, John, 208
Washington, George, 481
Washington Post, 172, 392
Watson (computer), 470–71, 475, 476–77, 486
Watson, Dr. John (char.), 477
Watson, Thomas (Bell’s assistant), 132, 477
Watson, Thomas, Jr. (IBM chief), 151
Watson, Thomas, Sr. (IBM founder), 477
Wavy Gravy, 388
Wayne, Ron, 348
weather patterns, 95
weather predictions, 115
weaving looms, 14, 21, 23, 26, 33, 35
WebCrawler, 227
Weiland, Ric, 318–19, 323
WELL, 302, 388, 389–90, 421, 422, 426
Wellington, Duke of, 7, 8
Wells Fargo, 213
Wescoff, Marlyn, 97–98
Westinghouse, 155, 181, 265
WhatsApp, 485
What the Dormouse Said (Markoff), 267, 281, 341n
Whitney, John Hay “Jock,” 186
Whole Earth Catalog (Brand), 265, 271–72, 278, 280, 297, 303, 388, 389, 408
Whole Earth communalists, 265, 294, 295, 297, 305, 309
Who Owns the Future? (Lanier), 419
Wiener, Norbert, 64, 223, 226, 243, 267, 269, 272
Wiesner, Jerome, 217–18, 219
WiFi, 387n
Wigner, Eugene, 140
Wikipedia, 264, 302, 379, 381, 441–46, 470, 482, 483, 486
creation of, 439–41
WikiWikiWeb, 434, 436
Wilkes, Maurice, 119, 120
Williams, Evan, 428–33, 435, 479–80
Williams, Frederic Calland, 119
Wilson, Woodrow, 132
Windows, 368–69, 370, 381
Winer, Dave, 429
Winograd, Terry, 455–56, 457–58
Wired, 303n, 420, 425
Wojcicki, Susan, 464
Wolfe, Tom, 157, 159, 193, 194, 270, 281
women:
as ENIAC programmers, 95–100, 117
math doctorates received by, 88
word processing, 2467
Wordsworth, William, 3
World Book Encyclopedia, 436–37, 442
World Health Organization, 388
World’s Fair (1939), 218
World War II, 72, 89, 138, 172
code breaking in, 76–79
science promoted by, 218–19
Z3 destroyed in, 54, 81
World Wide Web, 3, 405–65
Berner-Lee’s collaborative vision of, 413–14, 418, 433
initial creation of, 412–13
placed in public domain, 413, 436
profits from, 419, 420–21
World Wide Web Consortium (W3C), 420–21
Wozniak, Steve, 134, 211, 333n, 341n, 344–47, 348, 349, 353, 355, 398, 407, 464, 483–84
Apple partnership share of, 352
Breakout work of, 348, 350
terminal designed by, 350–52
Xanadu, 410–11, 419
Xerox, 371
Xerox Alto, 291, 293
Xerox PARC, 133, 221, 278, 286–91, 292, 293–94, 308, 363–64, 365, 367, 388, 482
Ethernet invented at, 256
Xerox Star, 365
X Mosaic, 416
Yahoo!, 447–48, 449, 450, 462, 464–65, 481
Yang, Jerry, 447–48
YouTube, 436
Z1, 52
Z2, 53
Z3, 53–54, 80–81
Znaimer, Sam, 328–29
Zuckerberg, Mark, 391
Zuse, Konrad, 52–54, 57, 75, 80–81
influence of, 82, 85
Simon & Schuster
1230 Avenue of the Americas
New York, NY 10020
www.SimonandSchuster.com
Copyright © 2014 by Walter Isaacson
All rights reserved, including the right to reproduce this book or portions there of in any form whatsoever. For information address Simon & Schuster Subsidiary Rights Department, 1230 Avenue of the Americas, New York, NY 10020.
First Simon & Schuster hardcover edition October 2014
SIMON & SCHUSTER and colophon are registered trademarks of Simon & Schuster, Inc.
Excerpts from “All Watched Over by Machines of Loving Grace” from The Pill Versus the Springhill Mine Disaster by Richard Brautigan. Copyright © 1968 by Richard Brautigan. Reproduced by permission of Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company. All rights reserved.
The Simon & Schuster Speakers Bureau can bring authors to your live event. For more information or to book an event contact the Simon & Schuster Speakers Bureau at 1-866-248-3049 or visit our website at www.simonspeakers.com.
Photo research and editing by Laura Wyss, Wyssphoto, Inc., with the assistance of Elizabeth Seramur, Amy Hikida, and Emily Vinson, and by Jonathan Cox.
Interior design by Ruth Lee-Mui
Jacket design by Pete Garceau
Jacket art (from top to bottom):
Ada Lovelace by Margaret Carpenter/Hultpn Archive/Getty Images; Steve Jobs by Justin Sullivan /Stringer/Getty Images News; Bill Gates by Theo Wargo/WireImage for OMEGA /Getty Images; Alan Turing by Private Collection/Prismatic Pictures/Bridgeman Images; Author photo by Patrice Gilbert
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Isaacson, Walter.
The innovators : how a group of inventors, hackers, geniuses, and geeks created the digital revolution / Walter Isaacson. — First Simon & Schuster hardcover edition.
pages cm
1. Computer scientists—Biography. 2. Computer science—History. 3. Internet—History. I. Title.
QA76.2.A2I87 2014
004.092′2—dc23
[B] 2014021391
ISBN 978-1-4767-0869-0
ISBN 978-1-4767-0871-3 (ebook)
Photo credits appear on page 525.
The Innovators Page 66
