by Guan Zi
In a passage of great proximity to the meaning and (likely) the era of the Xin Shu Shang , Xun Zi (313-238 BC) writes in his chapter “Removing Obstacles”:
The mind is the ruler of the body, and the host of spiritual intelligence. It gives commands but does not take commands. It restricts itself, allows itself, takes from itself, overcomes itself, moves itself, and stops itself. You can force someone’s mouth to be silent, you can force their body to scrunch up or stretch out, but you cannot force their mind to change their ideas. What it finds to be true, it accepts, and what it finds to be false, it rejects.
For this reason I say: what the mind apprehends, allow it to do so without restraining it. Allow things to spontaneously appear to the mind in their breadth of diversity, with the extent of the mind’s nature remaining not-two.
The Book of Poetry says:
Picking and gathering burdock roots
The basket is not full yet the roots fall out
I sigh for the man in my heart
As I let it go to and fro
A basket is easy to fill, and burdock is easy to gather, but not when the mind is divided in every which way. This is why I say: A mind that branches out in many directions knows nothing; a mind that is not level is not acute; a mind that is divided is doubtful and confused. But for a mind with focused scrutiny, the myriad things can come together in its understanding; for in oneself is a unity that runs though all categories. [111]
It may be of value to understanding the Xin Shu and Nei Ye that Xun Zi describes the (heart-)mind as the host, or lord, of spiritual intelligence. If we are to understand the Sage as the spiritual intelligence, it may also help to understand that the Sage holds no executive power, nor goes where the powerful would try to control him. The ruler, as with the heart-mind, has the power to do as he wishes, but he cannot force the Sage’s allegiance. To earn that, he must show that he is capable of acquiescing to higher wisdom, of practicing kindness, of being content with frugality, and of transcending self-interest; further, he must show that he can unite with Dao and allow its power, De, to fill his sails. In this way, the ruler (the heart-mind) may rule with the expertise of the Sage (spiritual intelligence). [112]
12 毋代馬 走 ,
Do not attempt to do the running for a horse.
13 使盡其 力 ,
Let it exhaust its strength.
14 毋代鳥 飛 ,
Do not attempt to do the flying for a bird.
15 使獘其羽翼。
Let it collapse its wings.
16 毋先物 動 ,
Do not precede the movements of other things,
17 以觀其則。
But rather, observe their inclinations.
18 動則失 位 ,
By moving you lose the throne position (of the heart-mind),
19 靜乃自 得 ,
But when still, you naturally obtain it.
The Sage has control over his impulses, like the ruler has control over his ministers. He does not act rashly, but observes the time, thereby achieving maximum effect with minimal effort at opportune moments.
As lines 1-11 explain above, the desires of the senses give rise to impulses which may coerce and dethrone the heart-mind. Lines 12-19 explain that these impulses should not be given reign, as this would compel the heart-mind to “attempt to do the running for a horse” and “the flying for a bird.” Such efforts are both futile and dangerous. Instead, the heart-mind (ruler) must not be pushed forward, away from the “throne position,” but rather observe these inclinations, ‘letting the horse exhaust its strength – letting the bird collapse its wings.’ Through this stillness, the throne of the heart-mind is naturally reclaimed.
Zhuang Zi expands on this teaching in chapter four, “The Human World Today”:
You have heard of flying with wings, but you have not yet heard of flying without wings. You have heard of knowing with knowledge, but you have not yet heard of knowing without knowledge. Look at the closed room. In an empty room, brightness blooms and good fortune stops to visit. If you do not also come to a stop, this is called sitting and racing about. If you allow the ears and eyes to penetrate within, while keeping the mind’s knowledge outside, gods and spirits will naturally come to dwell with you. How much more will other people! This is to transform the myriad things. It is the pivot of (legendary rulers) Yu and Shun, and that which Fuxi and Jiqu practiced to the end of their days. How much more should we all do the same! [113]
20 道不遠而難極也。
The Path is not far off, yet people are unable to reach it.
21 與人並處而難得也。
It follows men, dwelling in the same place, yet is difficult to obtain.
22 虛其 欲 , 神將入舍。
When you are empty of desires, the spirit goes forth into the house.
23 掃除不 潔 , 神乃留處。
If you sweep away and cleanse impurities, the spirit will remain settled. [114]
Sweeping away desires, the Sage makes a place to receive what is truly valuable.
XSS22-23 might be further clarified by Heshang Gong’s comments on DDJ11 (“The surrounding clay makes a pot, and by its emptiness the vessel is used”).
“When governing the body, one should eliminate strong emotions and abandon desires so that the five organs are hollow and empty, and their spirits can return.”
Lines 22-23 also reflect an idea common to Daoist meditation, and found in Heshang Gong’s commentary on DDJ10. Note that Heshang Gong’s comment here (below) also resembles the Buddhist mindfulness technique of impartially observing the mind’s engagements.
“ Looking deeply, purify and eliminate ”
One should wash the heart-mind until it is clean and pure. The heart-mind lives in the fathomless depths of emptiness. Investigate. Know its myriad engagements. This is called “investigating the fathomless.”
While Heshang Gong’s commentary on the Dao De Jing is said by some to show Buddhist influences, the proto-Daoist texts of the Guan Zi show that Heshang Gong was, in fact, pointing out the early indigenous Chinese meditation traditions in Lao Zi’s teachings.
The saying “the Dao is not far off, yet people are unable to reach it” (line 20) reflects similar statements in the Dao De Jing describing the ineffable quality of Dao. For example, DDJ14 [115] reads:
… Greet it and you do not see its front
Follow it and you do not see its rear
Hold to the ancient Dao and ride it until you possess the present
Then you will have the power to know the ancient beginning
This is called “the thread of Dao”
In the Xin Shu Shang , however, “the Dao is not far off, yet people are unable to reach it” appears in context of lines 12-19 (above) which show how to attain the throne position of the heart-mind. It is also followed by an illustration of how this position is lost in futile pursuits (see lines 24-27, below). Piecing these statements together, we see that Dao also refers to the state of inner unity and sovereignty, and that the method to attain this state is to sweep out the dust of the heart-mind (lines 22-23).
Dao, literally “the Path,” should thus be understood not only as a process, but also as a place at which to arrive, or “ 得 attain to.” Such a definition is significant to the lexicon of proto-daoist philosophy, especially in regards to “De, 德 , Virtue,” as shown in the ancient Xin Shu Shang commentary:
Virtue is the abode of Dao.
When things attain (Virtue), they live. [116]
Being alive, they can know the office of Dao’s essence.
Thus, Virtue also means “attainment.”
As for this attainment, it is called “attaining the causality.”
The effortlessness of this (causality) is called “Dao.”
The abode of Dao is called “Virtue.”
Thus, between Dao and Virtue, there is no space.
For this reason, it is said “they are not separate.”
The principle of th
is space is called “their abiding place.”
( Xin Shu Shang , lines 113-122)
24 人皆欲 智 , 而莫索其所以智乎。
All men desire wisdom, yet none can find (the Path) through wisdom!
25 智乎智 乎 , 投之海外無自 奪 ,
Wisdom! Wisdom! Cast it out into the ocean. Do not attempt to capture it outside of yourself.
26 求之者不得處之 者 ,
In those who seek it, it takes up no lodging. [117]
27 夫正人無求之 也 , 故能虛 無 ,
By aligning themselves and not seeking it, they can arrive at empty-nothingness
28 虛無無形謂之道。
What is empty-nothingness, and without form, is called Dao.
29 化育萬物謂之德。
What transforms and gives life to all things is called Virtue.
Those who think they are clever often lack the virtue to invite success. Because they think they are wise, they are oblivious to the truth.
Just as teachings on mindfulness advise focusing on the present moment and not getting caught up in the illusory creations of the mind, the Xin Shu Shang explains that engaging our intellects to attain stillness and wisdom will only lead us further from the all embracing emptiness of Dao. Heshang Gong’s commentary suggests that Lao Zi alludes to this strategy of effortless attainment in chapter 27 of the Dao De Jing : [118]
Excellent walking leaves no trail of footprints
Excellent speech is without fault or blame
Excellent counting does not use counting devices
Excellent closing requires no bolts
Yet the seal cannot be broken
Excellent binding requires no rope to secure it
Yet cannot be unbound…
In lines 12 through to 29, the Xin Shu Shang discusses matters of 1) guarding stillness, 2) sweeping clean the heart-mind, 3) retaining spirit, 4) transcending wisdom, and 5) practicing non-action. In doing so, its author transmits the tradition of proto-Daoist self-cultivation in the same sequence as preserved in DDJ10:
Guard the fortress of your bodily spirits
Embrace Oneness
Can you do this without letting them flee?
Gather together the energy-breath and become soft
This is the power of an infant
Looking deeply
Purify and eliminate
Can you be without flaw?
Caring for the people and governing the nation
Can you be without effort?
Heaven’s gate opens and closes
Can you act the part of the female? [119]
With your awareness shining on every corner
Can you be without knowledge?
Giving them life and cultivating them
Giving them life yet not possessing them
Acting for them yet not expecting of them
Leading them forward but not managing them
This is called Fathomless Virtue
This approach to true understanding is also found in DDJ11. In speaking of the space within an empty vessels, DDJ11 states “So, substance is gained, and emptiness is used.” By emptying one’s heart-mind of negative emotions and attachments, one may use this spaciousness, or “empty vessel,” to attain Virtue. Virtue transforms things and brings about their completion and perfection. Thus, one uses “what is not there,” the emptiness of the heart-mind, to gain Virtue. Then, what is there (Virtue), may be used to bring about completion and perfection. This process, of Virtue fostering transformation, is further developed in the Nei Ye , especially lines 1-22, and the Ling Shu Jing , chapter eight (see commentary on NY1-22).
While Dao is “empty-nothingness” (see lines 28-29), Virtue is not empty, because it contains Dao. This is also explained in the ancient commentary section of Xin Shu Shang (lines 113-122), quoted above.
30 君臣父子人間之事謂之義。
The duties between ruler and minister, father and son, and neighbours: this is called righteousness.
31 登降揖 讓 , 貴賤有 等 , 親疏之 體 , 謂之禮。
Rising and kneeling, bowing and yielding, respecting the hierarchy within the family: this is called courtesy.
32 簡物小未一 道 ,
To simplify things, humbling them before the one Dao,
33 殺僇禁誅謂之法。
Reducing offenses with prohibitions and punishment: this is called law.
34 大道可安而不可 說 ,
The Great Dao can bring peace and stability, yet it cannot be explained.
35 直人之 言 , 不義不顧。
(If) the correct ma n’ s words did not refer to righteousness, or filial duties,
36 不出於 口 , 不見於色，
If they did not leave his mouth, nor did his face reveal them,
37 四海之 人 , 又庸知其則。
All people within the four seas would return to their commonalities and understand these rules.
Having learned rules of conduct, and not how to cultivate inner stillness and harmony, people often use these rules for self-serving purposes and become callous judges of others’ behaviour. This has the opposite effect as teaching them to find inner stillness, from which they can empathize with, and truly care for the needs of, others.
The proto-Daoists are often regarded as the first anarchists, or otherwise the first to have written down a philosophy of anarchism. Both philosophies are, in fact, far more complex and multi-faceted than such comparisons take into account; however, there are some intrinsic similarities in the political facets that distinguished proto-Daoists and anarchists from their contemporaries. For Daoists, this political facet can be seen in their rejection of involuntary obedience to tradition, especially concerning obligations towards arbitrary hierarchies. The proto-Daoists felt that such obsession with authority was antagonistic to the development of both society and the individual. Mikhail Bakunin, an influential Russian anarchist, reflects this same ideology in tenets of his “Revolutionary Catechism” (1866). You might note that, like most of the early Chinese philosophers, Bakunin also addresses the definitions of justice, duty, and virtue.
II. Replacing the cult of God by respect and love of humanity, we proclaim human reason as the only criterion of truth; human conscience as the basis of justice; individual and collective freedom as the only source of order in society.
III. Freedom is the absolute right of every adult man and woman to seek no other sanction for their acts than their own conscience and their own reason, being responsible first to themselves and then to the society which they have voluntarily accepted.
...
V. The freedom of each is therefore realizable only in the equality of all. The realization of freedom through equality, in principle and in fact, is justice.
VI. If there is one fundamental principle of human morality, it is freedom . To respect the freedom of your fellowman is duty; to love, help, and serve him is virtue. [120]
Reading these words from Bakunin, it is easy to see how many came to the conclusion that the proto-Daoists were also anarchists upon finding the following statements from Lao Zi in DDJ19:
Quit sageliness
Abandon wisdom
And the people will benefit one hundred fold
Quit benevolence, abandon right-conduct
And the people will return to caring for their parents
Quit cleverness, abandon profit
And robbers and thieves will not exist
These three
Are only ornamental, and not satisfactory
Thus, we have the following: [121]
Observe the natural state
Embrace the unaltered
Minimize self-importance
And have few desires
Zhuang Zi (Chuang Tzu) also illustrates the inadequacy of prescribed morality in many of his parables, including the following from his chapter entitled “Horses Hooves”:
Yes, in the age of perfect virtue, men lived i
n common with birds and beasts, and were on terms of equality with all creatures, as forming one family – how could they know among themselves the distinctions of superior men and small men? Equally without knowledge, they did not leave (the path of) their natural virtue; equally free from desires, they were in the state of pure simplicity. In that state of pure simplicity, the nature of the people was what it ought to be. But when the Sagely men appeared, limping and wheeling about in (the exercise of) benevolence, pressing along and standing on tiptoe in the doing of righteousness, then men universally began to be perplexed. (trans. Legge)
Re-reading the entire Dao De Jing through the lens of this key concept – of returning to our spontaneous and intrinsic virtue rather than conforming to authorized prescriptions – one could, advantageously, see its influence in nearly every verse.
38 天曰 虛 , 地曰 靜 , 乃不伐。
Heaven is described as empty, earth is described as still. From this, (one should learn) not to boast.
39 潔其 宮 , 開其 門 ,
Purify the temple, open the gates;
40 去私毋 言 , 神明若存。
Eradicate egotism, and do not speak. Spiritual intelligence will then reside.
41 紛乎其若 亂 , 靜之而自治。
When scattered, it is as though a rebellion rises up within you; when calm and still, order naturally arrives.
42 強不能遍 立 , 智不能盡謀。
Force cannot widely establish such order. Wisdom cannot formulate all strategies.
