Figure 14.—German barrage balloon.
Although both types of balloons were inflated with hydrogen gas, they differed in that one type was inflated exclusively with hydrogen gas while the second was inflated with both hydrogen gas and air, each being in separate chambers. At least the first type, and probably both types, were divided into six gas chambers. The second type had its air compartment behind the hydrogen gas compartment, the air being forced out through air valves as the gas expanded at higher altitudes. As both types were still more or less in the experimental stage, they varied in size, the largest being approximately 60 feet long and 25 feet in diameter, with a long "flutter" tail. Although various types of lethal devices were in the process of experimentation, the final decision along these lines is not known.
SECTION III. USE OF AA WITH FIELD FORCES
11. Introduction
A discussion of the war-time use of AA artillery by the Germans falls into two general classifications: use with the field forces and use in defense of Germany and other static rear-area objectives. In this classification, however, it should be remembered that German tactical doctrine holds that organizations and weapons should not be placed in a purely defensive role except where the tactical situation absolutely demands such disposition. Wherever possible, an offensive plan will always take precedence over a plan which is purely defensive. Thus, even in rear-area and static positions, the German commander will, insofar as possible, build up his plan of organization and action in such manner as to incorporate as much of the offensive theory of operation as the situation will permit. This general underlying principle of German employment of troops and materiel should always be kept in mind in connection with the following discussion, which in accordance with the above classification has been divided into a section covering the use of AA with forces in the field and a section covering the use of AA in Germany and other static defense areas.
12. General Principles
a. The German Task Force
A German general has stated that the real secret of the initial success of the German Arms was "the combined employment of all arms on the battlefield in pursuance of one common mission." Related to this statement is the German conception of a task force as a grouping of the necessary arms and services, under one commander, for the accomplishment of a definite specified mission. Use of the task force implements another basic principle of command: that for a given mission a commander is selected, given the means, and allowed to carry out the assignment unhampered.
b. Antiaircraft Task Force Allocation
Following the general principle, AA artillery is assigned to specific task forces by the German High Command in accordance with the estimated need for AA artillery in execution of the mission. The size and composition of the AA artillery units so assigned will depend on several considerations, the most important of which are as follows:
The mission (and its importance);
The amount and characteristics of enemy aviation;
The amount, types, and characteristics of friendly aviation available;
The commander's estimate of the means required;
The amount and type of AA artillery materiel available;
The terrain;
Proximity to the enemy;
The weather and the season of the year.
c. Primary Missions of AA
In general, the primary missions of the AA artillery are considered by the Germans to be as follows:
Defense against hostile aerial reconnaissance;
Defense against hostile artillery observation;
Defense against hostile air attacks on personnel and important installations;
Support of friendly air combat strength.
Light, medium, and heavy AA weapons supplement each other in their effect. While the light and medium AA weapons furnish protection against low-flying hostile aircraft, the heavy weapons bear the brunt of the AA defense in the combat zone, combining long range with rapid fire and mobility.
The main mission of the heavy AA guns is to protect the ground against air reconnaissance and high-altitude attacks while on the march, at rest, or in actual combat. Moved by tractor or truck, the average marching speed of these heavy AA guns is from 5 to 20 miles per hour. Horse-drawn AA cannon are employed only by units contending with fuel shortages or very unsuitable road nets. Antiaircraft units moved by tractor or truck can be prepared for action rapidly; they have great mobility, and can be employed within the effective range of hostile artillery.
d. Transition from AA Role to Other Roles
In the approach to battle, as contact is made with the enemy, the German task force commander will utilize all facilities under his control to gain control of the air. For this purpose, he will employ all the aircraft at his disposal. During this same phase AA artillery will be employed in its primary mission of ground defense against hostile aircraft.
As control of the air is achieved, there is a transition in the employment of the ground arms. In direct proportion to the completeness achieved in control of the air, AA artillery becomes available for other missions. Since AA artillery guns combine the advantages of high mobility, high muzzle-velocity, accurate and rapid firing methods, and a flat trajectory, they are used against tanks and armored vehicles once their need in an AA role has become secondary.
While acting in their primary role, AA weapons will be employed against tanks, armored vehicles, or other ground targets only as a means of self-defense, or under circumstances where principles of surprise fire may apply. Since AA artillery is used by the Germans quite extensively to protect field artillery installations against hostile aircraft during the early phase when air control is being established, AA units in performance of this mission often find themselves in forward areas, and their very existence frequently depends on the ability to engage hostile tanks and armored vehicles.
Experiments with the use of AA guns (especially the 88-mm in the Spanish Civil War), together with later practical experiences in the Battle of France, resulted in AA weapons being mounted so that they could be used against ground as well as air targets. The 88-mm gun is the best example of this development, and its use in Russia against heavily armored vehicles was so successful that it began to be used more and more in a separate antitank role. This role has received much publicity and attention, but it should not obscure the fact that on most occasions the primary mission of the 88-mm gun is against hostile aircraft.
13. Operational Use Against Air Targets
a. General
It is a frequently repeated axiom in the German Army that every combat unit is responsible for its own AA defense against low-flying aircraft. Every man armed with a rifle is trained to use it against such aerial targets, it having been found that concentrated fire by rifles is very effective against attack by low-flying or strafing planes, up to slant ranges of about 500 yards. Machine-gun fire is considered effective up to about 800 yards; light- and medium-caliber AA cannon, up to a slant range of about 2,000 yards. Heavy AA artillery is considered as being effective for fire up to about 9,000 yards, but is not generally considered as being available for use against planes flying directly over the battery at altitudes of less than 400 yards. For this reason each heavy battery is supported by two 20-mm AA cannon, which are an organic part of the battery organization. Figure 15, which is taken from an authoritative German military manual used extensively by German junior officers, gives an analysis of the slant ranges of responsibility for defense against enemy aerial targets. It should be noted, however, that the maximum slant ranges shown in the figure are less than the actual maximum capacities of the weapons concerned.
b. Protection of Columns on the March
(1) Panzer divisions.—German Panzer divisions on the move are trained to keep a considerable distance between separate units and groups, and where possible the division generally marches in several columns along parallel roads. Usually the majority of AA guns will be found well forward in the columns, and all defiles, b
ridges, and stopping places will be well defended by AA units. The columns usually halt after 2 hours for 20 minutes' rest, and after 4 or 5 hours' movement a halt of at least 3 hours is normal.
Figure 15.—Slant-range chart.
In the event of air attack, the column continues its march, and machine guns and the light and medium AA gun crews open fire. If the air attack proves to be of such weight that casualties to truck-borne troops will be severe, the column halts and the troops take cover. The drivers, however, remain with their vehicles. When air attack threatens in open country, the tank columns deploy in open formation, usually V-shaped.
(2) Other units.—As mentioned above, all German troops are trained to use their rifles and machine guns for mass fire-power against low-flying and strafing airplanes, while on the march as well as in other situations. Antiaircraft artillery units, both organic Heeresflak units and attached Luftwaffe AA units, furnish the necessary AA protection in essentially the same manner as when operating with armored divisions, the only difference being that slower-moving units and supply echelons may require a special type of defense. It should also be remembered that, in cases Where the AA artillery is defending supply echelons, AA emplacements along prescribed routes of supply may be more or less static in nature.
c. Use in Forward Areas with Attacking Units
(1) General.—The use of AA units attached to Army divisions and corps will vary with the situation and in accordance with the higher commander's views as to how the AA artillery under his control can best be used in carrying out his attack mission.
(2) Example of use with an attacking Panzer division.—An order of the 15th Panzer Division, dated May 25, 1942, gives an interesting insight into the divisional commander's employment of the AA forces at his disposal. The order is for the assembly of the division in preparation for an attack. The 15th Panzer Division occupied a central position, the 90th Light Division being on the right and the 21st Panzer Division on the left. The 15th Panzer Division was organized into four groups as follows: an armored group, a reconnaissance group, a supporting group, and an infantry group mounted on trucks.
(a) Disposition of AA forces.—The AA forces at the disposal of the 15th Panzer Division by this order consisted of—
(1) An AA battalion staff;
(2) One heavy AA battery (6 heavy and 2 light guns),
(3) One light AA battery (12 light guns), Luftwaffe
(4) One light AA battery, less one section (9 light guns); AA troops
(5) One AA company (12 light guns) of organic Heeresflak troops.
These forces were distributed as follows:
(b) Analysis of dispositions.—The following points of interest arise from an analysis of the order and the above dispositions:
(1) The chain of command is from the AA battalion staff (attached to the staff of the Panzer division), through the heavy and light battery staffs with the armored group and the light battery staff with the support group.
(2) The heavy battery is seen in a dual role. In the approach to battle it provides AA protection; it turns to the ground role in support of the tanks when battle is joined.
(3) The light batteries protect the divisional and AA battery staffs, the field artillery, the engineers, and the heavy AA battery against low-flying attack. The ground role is secondary.
(4) The organic AA company gives protection against low-flying attack to the mounted infantry and reconnaissance groups.
(5) The forces mentioned in the orders of the 15th Panzer Division do not comprise an entire mixed AA battalion, the missing elements being two heavy batteries and one section of a light battery. In this connection, it is known that a considerable force of heavy AA guns (no doubt accompanied by a few light guns for close protection) was operating as an independent antitank group in this operation, and the missing elements of the battalion were undoubtedly assigned to the separate ground-target mission.
d. Protection of Rear-Area Installations
In operating with task forces, certain of the attached AA units are allotted for protection of Army and Air Force installations. Even in moving situations, AA must be designated to defend important semipermanent installations such as depots, parks, railheads, bridges, airdromes, etc. No hard-and-fast set rule is laid down for this use of AA artillery. The size of the AA force defending such areas will depend to a large extent on the AA artillery which is available for this assignment. Another consideration is whether or not superiority of air power has been attained.
Employment of the available AA forces will vary. In the western campaign in May, 1940, the AA defense of the German forces in the main attack over the Meuse River from Dinant to Sedan remained in the hands of an AA corps commander. The AA corps was composed of a number of AA divisions, each organized into regiments and separate battalions. Once the crossing was affected, the AA units comprising the corps were attached to other forces advancing on their missions. In later stages of that campaign, it was customary for the AA artillery to protect forward elements by attaching one battalion of three 88–mm gun batteries to each army corps, and one battalion of the same size to each army.
e. Defense of Railway Trains
(1) General.—The mounting of AA materiel on railway mounts for the protection of railway trains and as a means of furnishing a mobile defense of lines of communication has been highly perfected by the Germans. It should be noted that AA guns mounted on railway mounts can be used either in rear areas for protection of trains operating therein, or for the protection of trains carrying troops or supplies to forward combat areas. For example, the Germans use these mounts for the protection of important trains operating in Germany, but they also have had these mounts in large numbers throughout Russia during the Russian Campaign. Although the 20-mm Flak single- or four-barreled gun is normally employed, it is known that the 37-mm, the 88-mm, 105-mm, and possibly the 75-mm and 150-mm Flak guns are also used for this purpose.
(2) Method.—A German manual lays down certain rules for employment of AA guns on railway mounts. A flatcar known as the R-Wagen is the truck prescribed by the German manual for use with the 20-mm gun. The gun is mounted on one end of the car. The crew is carried under a removable roof on the other end. Safe defenses are put up around the gun for "safe" firing zones. The manual prescribes three general methods in which protection may be given to trains:
•Three cars mounted with a machine gun on AA mounts and situated respectively one-fourth, one-half, and three-fourths of the way along the train;
•Three trucks carrying 20-mm light Flak guns, one in the middle of the train, one at the rear, and one immediately behind the locomotive. The gun behind the locomotive is usually not manned, being a spare to permit reversing the train without shunting the guns.
•On especially important trains an additional 20-mm gun may be carried on a truck in front of the locomotive.
On the move, the guns are continuously manned, priority areas of 180 degrees being allotted as follows:
•Forward: To the front machine gun and the center 20-mm Flak guns;
•Rearward: To the center and rear machine guns, and the rear 20-mm Flak guns;
•Forward: To the 20-mm Flak gun (when carried) in front of the locomotive.
These means of defense of railway trains are not necessarily the only ones possible, as it is known that the position (or sequence of the positions) of AA guns protecting the trains may be changed at any time to comply with particular requirements.
Since care must be taken that the AA guns are not struck by obstructions such as passing trains, tunnels, signal posts, etc., lookouts are detailed to observe on each side of the train. When not firing, the 20-mm guns are pointed directly to the front or rear depending on their sector of fire.
Since no warning of attacks can be expected, all AA personnel must be kept in a constant state of readiness. There are two aircraft watchers, one observing an arc of 180 degrees to the front, the other to the rear. These watchers are selected from among the best-trai
ned men and relieved frequently.
When the train is moving, where possible only tracer ammunition is used, since the motion does not permit accurate sighting. Care is taken not to shoot up signal posts and other installations, and where there are overhead powerlines, no firing is done even under attack.
f. Searchlights
Searchlight units consisting of heavy searchlights are normally assigned to task forces only in those cases where the assigned mission may require their use. With field forces engaged in offensive operations, the employment of heavy searchlights will be rare. Their use would normally be confined to rear areas, under circumstances where the situation has become static and it is necessary to employ heavy AA protection. Inasmuch as light searchlights are an organic part of the light AA battalions, a certain number of light searchlight batteries will be found moving into forward areas with the field forces. As their use will be limited, however, the tendency of German commanders is to leave the bulk of the searchlights in rear-area positions for defense of those areas. As these light searchlight batteries are highly mobile, it should be remembered that the commander can also use them in a variety of ways other than against aircraft, such as defense against parachute troops and in night ground attacks.
g. Antiaircraft Warning System
For warning against hostile aircraft both in the field and in rear areas, the Germans have a troop-warning service of the AA artillery which is similar in principle to the Antiaircraft Artillery Information Service (AAAIS) of U.S. AA units. Every active German AA unit observes the air in the area under its jurisdiction with specially trained personnel known as air guards. Through a system of communication facilities, these air guards submit detailed reports of hostile aircraft in their vicinity. Under normal circumstances the AA battalion headquarters is responsible for forwarding appropriate warning reports to the air-arm commander at higher headquarters.
German Artillery in Combat Page 7
