by Will Dunne
• psychological traits. such as the ability to see dead people?
2. Anthropomorphic creatures. Do any of your characters belong to the animal, bird, fish, insect, or plant kingdom but have human traits—for example, pigs who speak and act like people?
3. Otherworldly beings. Some dramatic characters may be unlike anything on earth. Does your story include any
• ethereal beings, such as ghosts or demons?
• fantasy beings, such as vampires or werewolves?
• mythic beings, such as dragons or unicorns?
4. Physical realm. The nonrealism of a story may be embodied by the physical environment and what’s in it. Do any settings in your story include nonrealistic
• physical features, such as a door that leads to the afterlife or a pond that reflects visions of the future?
• clothing or accessories, such as shoes that can transport a girl from one land to another or a cape that can make a man invisible?
• inventions, such as a time machine or a computer that can read minds?
• other objects, large or small, such as a piano that can arouse the souls of the dead or a ring that can endow its wearer with extraordinary strength?
• sensory experiences, such as unearthly sounds, smells, or physical sensations?
5. Dramatic events. Does your story feature any nonrealistic
• physical phenomena, such as people turning into rhinoceroses or the water of a river turning to blood?
• miracles, such as the unexplained cure of a physical disability?
• supernatural events, such as demonic possession or a visit from an angel?
• intergalactic events, such as an invasion of creatures from outer space?
6. Backstory. The backstory is everything that has happened in the world of the characters before the opening scene. Does your backstory include any nonrealistic characters or events—for example, an ancestor who was born from the earth or a house that was once haunted?
The rules
Once you have identified the nonrealistic elements of your story, you need to know the rules that govern them. For each element you identified, consider these questions:
1. How does this element work? Focus on both its positive and negative features, and state the key rules that govern its existence in the world of your story. For example, Riggan has telekinetic powers: he can move a physical object by pointing his finger at it.
2. What new potential does this element create in the world of the story, even if this potential is never fully realized?
3. What specific limitations does this element impose on the characters or the world they inhabit?
4. Are all of the characters aware of this element and its effects? If not, why do some characters know about it and others don’t?
5. Among characters who know about this element, how do most of them perceive it? Does anyone have mistaken ideas about it, and why?
6. Whom does this element most affect, and how? If anyone is not affected, why is that?
7. When and how is this element first introduced in the story? Is it established early enough for the audience to accept it as credible?
8. Whether the element is present from the beginning of the story or comes into existence as a result of story events, what is its primary cause?
9. Does this element change or cease to exist during the story? If so, what happens, and what causes this new development?
WRAP-UP
For any type of dramatic story, it is important to know how the world of the characters works. This is especially true when you are creating a nonrealistic world with special rules. You may identify some of these new facts of life while planning the story and discover others as you write. At some point during script development, you need to settle on what the rules are, commit to your choices, and then write and revise your script with these self-imposed dictates in mind.
Related tools in The Dramatic Writer’s Companion. Defining the facts of life is part of fleshing out the world of the story. To explore this world further, go to the “Building Your Story” section and try “As the World Turns.”
IN THE BEGINNING
THE QUICK VERSION
Explore ideas for how your story begins
BEST TIME FOR THIS
During early story development
FINDING THE RIGHT POINT OF ATTACK
A critical step in story development is the decision about when and how to bring the audience into the lives of the characters. This decision determines what we first see and hear in the story and thus contributes to our initial impressions of it. The moment a dramatic story begins is sometimes called the point of attack.
To find the right point of attack, you need to know how much of the story, if any, the audience should see before the inciting event: the experience that upsets the balance of the main character’s life and sets a quest into motion. It is when a woman reveals to her husband that she has invited guests for cocktails in the middle of the night, or when a former drug dealer returns from prison and finds a strange man’s hat in his girlfriend’s bedroom.
The point of attack is often set close to the inciting event so the main character’s quest can be triggered as soon as possible after the story begins. Sometimes the point of attack and inciting event are simultaneous. In Doubt: A Parable by John Patrick Shanley, a nun’s quest to drive away a suspected pedophile priest is triggered by a sermon he delivers from the pulpit on the subject of doubt. This sermon starts the play and thus functions dramatically as both point of attack and inciting event.
The point of attack may occur well before the inciting event if there are things the writer wants to accomplish first. In Hamlet a prince’s quest to avenge his father’s murder is incited when his father’s ghost appears to him and names the murderer. This meeting doesn’t happen, however, until scene 5 so that we can first witness life in the kingdom after the king’s death. Rarely does a story begin after the inciting event, since that would prevent the audience from witnessing a key part of the dramatic journey.
The decision about when to set the point of attack determines not only when the story begins but also when the backstory ends. The backstory is anything that happened before scene 1 that will affect the characters during the dramatic journey. In some cases, the point of attack is set early in the history of the story so there is little relevant backstory. As a result, the audience can witness all or most of the story events while they happen, as in Rajiv Joseph’s Gruesome Playground Injuries, which starts when the characters meet in a school nurse’s office at the age of eight.
In other cases, the point of attack is set late in the history of the story so that certain key events have already occurred before scene 1, as in Tracy Letts’s August: Osage County, which begins decades after a family’s web of betrayal and deceit was first spun. When events from the past play a critical role in the present, the writer must find ways to make the audience aware of them. Stories with a late point of attack often rely more on exposition—that is, explanations about what the audience cannot see for themselves.
ABOUT THE EXERCISE
Use this exercise to explore a beginning for your story. You can analyze a beginning you’ve already written or flesh out possibilities for a new one. Examples are from Of Mice and Men by John Steinbeck, recipient of the 1938 New York Drama Critics Circle Award for Best Play. The story focuses on two migrant farm workers during the Great Depression who dream of owning a farm. Originally a novella by Steinbeck, the story has been adapted twice to film—in 1938 by Eugene Solow and in 1992 by Horton Foote.
■ WHEN THE STORY BEGINS
Explore the beginning of your story in relation to the inciting event and backstory.
1. Inciting event. Large or small, positive or negative, the inciting event is a turning-point experience that arouses the main character’s primary goal in the story.
• Steinbeck’s play focuses on the quest of George Milton, a migrant worker, to protect his mentally
disabled partner, Lennie Small, from an aggressive foe. This quest is incited when they get hired at a ranch and Lennie unintentionally angers the boss’s son, thus setting into motion a rivalry that will lead to murder. What is the inciting event of your story? What quest does it arouse?
• Steinbeck begins his play the night before the inciting event, when George and Lennie are still on their way to the ranch and set up camp beside a river. When does your story begin in relation to the inciting event?
2. Backstory. By beginning his play the night before Lennie and George arrive at the new ranch, Steinbeck chose not to show the audience a number of earlier experiences in the history of the characters. George and Lennie have been friends since childhood and began traveling together as migrant workers after Lennie’s Aunt Clara died. A key event during their travels occurred at their last job in Weed, California: they had to flee for their lives after the childlike Lennie tried to pet a woman’s dress and the locals came after him with guns. Think about when your story begins in relation to the backstory. What critical events, if any, have you chosen to keep in the past?
■ HOW THE STORY BEGINS
Flesh out the opening scene in more detail and explore why this is the best time to introduce the audience to the characters.
1. Setting and time. Define where and when the action takes place.
• Setting. Of Mice and Men opens on a sandy bank of the Salinas River beside a stagnant stream. Surrounded by willows and blanketed with dry leaves, the area feels “sheltered and quiet.” Where does your story begin?
• Time. Steinbeck’s play takes place during the Great Depression and begins on a Thursday night at dinnertime as the sun sets. When does your story begin?
2. Given circumstances. As with any scene, the opening of a story is surrounded by given circumstances that influence character behavior.
• Physical circumstances. George is a small man. Lennie is a large man who doesn’t know his own strength. Their campsite is a quarter mile from the ranch where they hope to get jobs in the morning. Having just walked four miles after their bus driver left them off in the wrong place, they are now tired, hungry, and thirsty. Unknown to George, Lennie has a dead mouse in his pocket. What physical circumstances are at work as your story begins?
• Psychological circumstances. George is quick-minded and resourceful. Lennie is mentally disabled and has a childlike need to pet soft things, such as the dead mouse in his pocket. Both men dream of owning their own farm and raising rabbits. What psychological circumstances are at work as your story begins?
• Social circumstances. Like many migrant workers of their time, George and Lennie are homeless, broke, and without families. They fight loneliness by banding together in a partnership that George rules. Because of Lennie’s mental weakness and clumsy physical strength, George often has to come to his rescue. What social circumstances are at work as your story begins?
3. Elements of action. The first event of a story typically occurs because of certain needs, problems, and motivations that cause the characters to interact.
• Scenic objectives. Knowing the trouble that Lennie can cause, George wants to convince him to keep his mouth shut when they arrive at the ranch tomorrow in search of work. Lennie wants to please George. What does each character want most in your opening scene?
• Scenic conflict. George wants to teach Lennie how to behave, and Lennie wants to learn, but they both have a difficult time achieving their objectives because of Lennie’s impaired thinking, forgetfulness, and tendency to get distracted. What conflicts will make it hard for your characters to get what they want in scene 1?
• Scenic motivation. What’s at stake for George is employment and thus survival. What’s at stake for Lennie is George’s happiness. What will motivate your characters to get what they want in scene 1? Identify what’s at stake.
4. Main event. The main event of Steinbeck’s scene is an agreement: Lennie promises to keep his mouth shut when they arrive at the ranch tomorrow and meet the boss. What is the main event of your opening scene?
5. Grand question. The opening scene of a dramatic story often gives the audience a sense of who and what the story will be about so that they can settle into the world of the characters and know where to put their focus. This “ticket to ride” suggests a dramatic destination ahead and often raises a grand question that the story will address. The scene between George and Lennie clearly establishes them as the characters whom we will follow and raises the question that fuels the story: how will George protect Lennie, a man who is a danger to himself? What grand question might your opening scene raise in the minds of the audience?
6. Why now. Of Mice and Men could have started earlier in the lives of George and Lennie—for example, when they were in Weed, where Lennie stirred up trouble by petting a woman’s dress. Or the play could have started later—for example, when they first arrive at the ranch near Soledad to get new jobs. Steinbeck chose to begin his story at the riverbank between these events so that we could see how George and Lennie behave when they are alone in a safe place.
As a result, we discover character traits that will be important later, such as Lennie’s simple-mindedness, his inability to control his own strength, and his fetish for petting things. We also gain the opportunity to see why these misfits have banded together. Lennie needs George for advice and protection. George needs Lennie to feel important and have a sense of purpose. In addition, the opening scene introduces their best-laid plans to own a rabbit farm, generates suspense by raising questions about how Lennie will act at the ranch tomorrow, and uses a dead mouse in Lennie’s pocket to foreshadow his accidental killing of a woman whose pretty hair he will try to pet.
Think about your opening scene. Why is this the best time to bring the audience into the lives of your characters? List as many reasons as you can. Then consider these two questions:
• Does enough happen in scene 1 to engage the audience? If not, you may have started the story too soon. Is there a later point in the lives of the characters that would work better because there would be more at stake?
• Is so much happening in scene 1 that the audience may not want to get involved? If so, you may have started the story too late. Is there an earlier point in the lives of the characters that would work better because it would give the audience time to know them before their lives erupt into crisis?
■ POINT OF ATTACK
Once you know the first event of your story, you need to determine the moment when this event will start to unfold. In other words, you need to find the exact point of attack not only for this opening scene but also for your whole story.
1. Opening image. Ranch dogs bark in the distance, and a flock of startled quails flies off with the sound of beating wings as George and Lennie arrive at the secluded riverbank in single file. Both are carrying blanket rolls, which they throw down in exhaustion. Lennie then falls down and, snorting, begins to drink from the river. What is the opening image or action of your story?
2. Opening line. Seeing that the stream looks stagnant, George begins the play’s dialogue with a scolding: “Lennie, for God’s sake, don’t drink so much.” When Lennie fails to respond, George shakes him and adds: “Lennie, you hear me! You gonna be sick like you was last night.” The first words of the story thus suggest George’s role as Lennie’s caretaker. The reference to Lennie’s earlier illness implies that this role is a challenging one. What is the opening line of your story? What do these words reveal?
3. Opening beat. A beat is the smallest unit of dramatic action and usually centers on one topic, one behavior, or one emotion.
• Beat objectives. In Steinbeck’s opening beat, Lennie has a physical objective: to quench his thirst. George has a behavioral objective: to convince Lennie to stop drinking bad water. What do your characters each want in your opening beat?
• Beat conflict. Lennie wants to drink water and George wants him to stop. The story’s first conflict is thus created by their co
ntradictory needs. Large or small, what is the first conflict of your story?
• Beat motivation. George wants to stop Lennie from drinking the water because his health could be at risk. Lennie wants to keep drinking because he’s thirsty. What motivates each of your characters to act in the opening beat?
4. First impressions. With Lennie drinking from a polluted stream and George scolding him, we see that Lennie doesn’t know how to take care of himself and that George therefore must act as his guardian in spite of the fact that Lennie is much larger than him. Such traits imply an unbalanced but caring relationship. What first impressions do you wish to make on the audience as your story begins?
5. Emotional impact. The opening of Steinbeck’s play might lead us to worry about a large man drinking from a polluted stream and a small man trying to stop him. What emotion do you wish to arouse in the audience as your story begins?
6. Why now. Scene 1 takes place at the riverbank where George and Lennie camp for the night. This scene could have begun after they had already set up camp, but Steinbeck chose to start when they first arrive. This point of attack creates the opportunity to show their discovery of the river, their different reactions to the water, and the parent-child relationship that underlies the dramatic journey. This point of attack also sets a mood for play, with barking dogs, fleeing quails, a polluted stream, and the onset of darkness suggesting that the world these migrants have entered is a dangerous one. Think about your point of attack. Why is this is the best moment to begin your opening scene and thus your whole story? List as many reasons as you can.
WRAP-UP
Steinbeck’s play will end at the same riverbank with George once again faced with the task of protecting Lennie. The danger will have increased significantly, however, from polluted water to a mob that wants to lynch Lennie for accidentally killing someone. Knowing that the mob will be vicious if they find him, but also that he could unintentionally kill again, George will make the decision to euthanize his partner with the gunshot that ends the play.
