by Will Dunne
adjustment. The attitude or emotion that a character manifests at any given time. The adjustment may be true (this is how the character really feels) or affected (this is how the character wishes to appear). At the scenic level, adjustments often change from beat to beat as characters make discoveries that shift them closer to, or further from, their scenic objective.
afterstory. Anything that will happen in the world of the characters after the story ends. Knowing this future can deepen the writer’s understanding of what needs to occur or be revealed during the dramatic journey.
antagonist. One who opposes a main character’s efforts to pursue a goal.
arc of action. The behavioral and emotional transition of a character during a specific period of time. A character typically has an arc within each scene as well as an arc that spans the course of the whole story.
backstory. Anything that happened among the characters in the past and will somehow influence them in the present. In the first scene, the backstory includes any relevant event that occurred before the story begins; in later scenes, the backstory expands to include whatever has previously occurred onstage or offstage.
beat. 1. The smallest unit of dramatic action. A scene is made up of beats; each centers on one topic, one behavior, or one emotion. Beats bring variety to the dramatic action of a scene and determine its structure and rhythm. 2. A pause in dialogue for dramatic effect. This guide uses only definition 1.
beat action or objective. The character need that drives one beat of a scene. Beat actions often are strategies or tactics that a character tries in order to achieve a scenic objective.
beat change. A shift in the dramatic action caused by a change of topic, behavior, or emotion, or by the entrance or exit of an important character.
behavioral objective. A character’s need to get a certain response from another character. Operating at the beat, scene, and story levels, behavioral objectives boil down to four basic categories: to make another character feel good, to make another character feel bad, to find out something important, or to convince another character of something important.
character. A metaphor for a human being composed of a unique mix of physical, psychological, and social traits that are revealed and changed through dramatic action. This guide builds on the principle that character is the root of scene and story: it is usually character, not plot, that drives a dramatic journey.
Character 1. The main character of a scene: the one who drives most of the dramatic action and causes the scene to happen. Different characters may play this role from scene to scene. Character 1 is also often, but not always, the main character of the story.
Character 2. The second most important character in a scene. Different characters may play this role from scene to scene.
climax. The peak of action within a beat, scene, or story. At the beat level, the climax is usually a single line of dialogue or physical action; at the scene level, the climax may include one or more beats of action; at the story level, the climax may include one or more scenes.
conflict. Anything that makes a character objective difficult to achieve. Such obstacles may arise from the character’s inner world, from other characters with incompatible needs, or from the current situation in the world of the story. The term conflict is often equated incorrectly with argument; however, argument is only one form of conflict. Also referred to as obstacle or problem.
crisis decision. The most difficult decision in the story. Traditionally, the crisis decision is made by the main character, reflects a choice between incompatible goods or the lesser of two evils, and triggers the story’s climax and resolution.
deus ex machina.. A solution to a problem which arises from coincidence or other external forces rather than from the character actions and story events that led up to it. The term refers to a device in ancient Greek theater where gods would arrive conveniently in chariots at the end of a play to solve everyone’s problems.
dialogue. The words that characters speak as they talk and listen to each other in order to satisfy needs, address problems, or express ideas and emotions. In realism, dialogue has the feel of everyday conversation but is actually a heightened version of it. In nonrealism, dialogue may be stylized. Either way, the usual function of dialogue is to reveal character and advance the story.
dramatic action. Character interaction or other activity shaped and driven at its most fundamental level by three elements: objective, obstacle, and motivation.
dramatic journey. The main character’s pursuit of an important but difficult goal and the effects of this pursuit on the character and the world of the story. Also known as the quest.
emotional life. The feelings of the character at any given time. Emotional life is both a cause and effect of dramatic action, and often minimizes the need for dialogue.
event. An important happening, positive or negative, in the world of the story—for example, something is achieved or not achieved, discovered or not discovered. Dramatic events often center on a beginning, end, or change of some kind.
exposition. Explanation or description of that which cannot be observed here and now, such as past or offstage events in the world of the story, or the inner life of a character. Though often viewed as negative, exposition can be a vital and powerful part of dramatic storytelling when used judiciously to expose specific character traits, ideas, and facts.
feather duster. An expositional scene in which characters explain things to each other, often at length, only for the sake of the audience. The term refers to old-fashioned dramas that would begin with servants dusting the room and gossiping about their employers so that the author could set up the story.
foil. A character who exists in a scene only to ask just the right questions and lend an eager ear so that another character can ramble on about all of the things that the author wants him or her to say for the sake of the audience.
foreshadowing. Preparation for a future story revelation or development. In the case of a “plant,” this preparation may be transparent so that its real purpose is not known until later. In the case of a “pointer,” this preparation calls attention to itself in order to generate anticipation of what might happen later.
fourth wall. The imaginary wall that separates the audience from the events on stage or on screen. In some cases, such as stories that feature a narrator, characters “break the fourth wall” to address the audience directly.
French scene. A unit of action demarcated by the entrance or exit of a principal character. Each time a new configuration of characters occurs, a new French scene begins. Ideally something important happens in each French scene.
genre. A category or type of dramatic story characterized by a certain style, form, or subject matter. Through the ages, a variety of genres and subgenres have evolved as blends or subsets of the two basic theatrical genres: comedy and tragedy.
given circumstances. The current situation in the world of the story, including any fact, event, state, or condition that will affect how a scene begins or unfolds. Each scene occurs within a unique set of given circumstances.
inciting event or incident. The phenomenon, large or small, positive or negative, that sets the dramatic journey into motion by upsetting the balance of the character’s life and arousing the story goal or superobjective. The inciting event is often the first important event in the story.
interior dramatization. Imagery, sound, or dramatic action that suggests or depicts what is going on in a character’s mind, such as a memory, idea, or perception.
interior monologue. Words spoken by a character that can be heard by the audience but no one in the story. Interior monologues typically reflect what a character is thinking and feeling. Also known as soliloquy.
measure of success. A specific statement, action, event, or other outcome that would indicate that a character’s objective has been achieved.
melodrama. A story dictated more by plot demands than by character motivations so that exaggerated
conflicts and emotions can be presented to the audience for “dramatic effect.”
monologue. A long speech in which a character speaks to the self, or to someone else who is present or not present, or to the world at large.
motivation. Why a character says or does something. Motivation is a basic element of dramatic action and reflects something at stake for the character.
nonrealism. A storytelling style that creates an artificial reality. It may feature unusual or otherworldly situations, intellectual themes, stylized speech, archetypal characters, and imaginative devices such as exaggeration, distortion, fragmentation, repetition, symbolism, or direct address to the audience.
objective. What a character wants. A basic element of dramatic action, an objective may be behavioral or physical and, depending on its size and importance, may drive a beat (beat action), scene (scenic objective), or whole story (story goal).
obstacle. Anything that makes a character’s objective difficult to achieve. Obstacle is a basic element of dramatic action. Also referred to as conflict or problem.
physical life. The specific setting for a scene as well as the objects in it and the physical elements that compose it.
physical objective. The desire or need to complete a physical task.
pivotal object. A thing that has special positive or negative meaning for the characters and significantly affects their interaction in a scene. The pivotal object often embodies what the character most values or fears here and now.
plant. A speech, action, image, or object that will make a future story development understandable and credible to the audience by discreetly paving the way for it. Ideally, a plant’s true purpose is not known until its payoff occurs later on.
pointer. A speech, action, image, or object that paves the way for a future story development by overtly suggesting that it might happen. Unlike a plant, a pointer draws attention to itself in order to make the audience anticipate an outcome.
point of attack. The precise moment when a story or scene begins.
point of view. The vantage point from which the story will be revealed to the audience. This vantage point may be unlimited or limited.
protagonist. A classical term for the main character of a dramatic story. The role of protagonist may be played by more than one character.
quest. What the main character is after in the story. Also known as the story goal or superobjective.
realism. A storytelling style that creates the illusion of real life without acknowledging the audience. It typically features “slice of life” situations, emotional themes, everyday speech, and characters with whom we can empathize.
resolution. How things end up for the characters; the final outcome of the story. Also referred to as the denouement.
reversal. A turning-point experience, positive or negative, that sets the dramatic journey into a radically different, often opposite, direction. Each act of a dramatic story typically ends with a reversal.
rule of three. The storytelling principle that something which is said or done three times is funnier, more important, or more dramatic than something which is said or done any other number of times. This “rule” suggests that thrice provides the best emphasis for an important fact or action, since once is not enough to stress something, twice seems like a mistake, and four times feels repetitious.
scene. A unit of dramatic action that is driven by a character’s need to accomplish something important and unfolds in one setting in real time. Most scenes add up to one main event that changes the world of the story in a good or a bad way.
scenic objective. The character need that drives most of a scene. Once aroused, either prior to the scene or during it, the scenic objective does not change until it is achieved or reaches a point of failure.
sense memory. A technique in which actors relive a past experience emotionally by recalling a physical detail from it. Writers can adapt this technique to explore their characters at a visceral level.
speech. What a character says at one time. A speech may be as short as one word or as long as several pages, depending on the complexity and importance of the content. Also referred to as a line.
spine of the character. The root action from which all of the character’s other actions flow.
step outline. A writing or revision tool that gives the writer an at-a-glance view of the story structure by listing the key events in the order in which they happen.
story. The series of events that occurs when a character pursues an important goal that is difficult to achieve.
story goal. The character desire or need that is aroused by the inciting event, drives most of the story, and does not reach its conclusion—whether successful or unsuccessful—until the story ends. Also known as the quest or superobjective.
story structure. The selection and sequence of events used to depict a story. Classically referred to as plot.
strategy. How a character attempts to achieve an objective. Different strategies create the different beats of a scene. Also known as tactics.
style. The manner in which characters and story events are depicted. The style of a dramatic work may be realistic or nonrealistic.
subtext. Character thoughts and feelings that influence character behavior but are not stated in the dialogue. Subtext is that which remains “between the lines.”
superobjective. See story goal.
suspense. A state in which the audience is in two places at the same time: the present (what is happening here and now in the story) and the future (what might happen later in the story as a result of what is happening now).
theme. A universal idea that the writer believes to be true and attempts to demonstrate through the characters and story. The theme is usually not stated in the dialogue but is often reflected most clearly in the crisis, climax, and resolution of the story. Also known as controlling idea or premise.
throughline. The spine of the story: the key events and how they connect so that the dramatic journey maintains a forward movement from beginning to end and enables a transition to occur.
turning point. A dramatic event, large or small, positive or negative, that creates an observable change in the world of the story. A major turning point is sometimes referred to as a reversal.
voice. How a character expresses thoughts and feelings through language. This voice is a core component of character identity and speech.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Thank you to the dramatic writers in my workshops who helped me select the exercises that appear in this guide, particularly Susan Bazargan, Janet Burroway, Jan Chatler, Amy Crider, Patricia Curtis, Anita Delaria, Cathy Earnest, Joshua Fardon, David Finney, Dennis Fisher, Hope Hommersand, Christine Hodak, Corinne Kawecki, Charles O’Connor, Nancy Schaefer, Anthony Seed, and Diane Watry.
Thank you as well to the University of Chicago Press and the staff who encouraged and supported the development of this guide, particularly Paul Schellinger, who was the first to champion the project; Christie Henry, who helped steer it in the right direction; my editor Mary Laur, who helped move it to publication, and my manuscript editor Ruth Goring, who helped refine the words. Special thanks also to the theater experts who, through the Press, were generous enough to review my materials and offer invaluable insights, especially Alvaro Saar Rios.
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