by J E Kaufmann
Between 1939 and 1943 the Italian coastal defenses consisted of a variety of battery positions, some of which formed the defenses of a few heavily fortified ports. Ports like Venice remained fortified even when the emphasis shifted to the western and southern coasts after 1915. The positions ranged from small shielded guns on barbette mounts, to huge batteries. The battery of Monte Moro, located east of Genoa, housed large 381-mm/40 Ansaldo guns that had been hauled up the mountain and installed in armored turrets. Its supporting facilities were inside the mountain. Battery Mameli di Pegli near Genoa included an armored rangefinder revolving on a circular concrete casemate used for observation. These new emplacements were added to the few older positions built late in the Great War.
During World War II the batteries of Amalfi (Venice), Brin and Bandiera (Brindisi), Opera A (Augusta), Monte Moro (Genoa), and Arenzano each consisted of a twin gun turret with 381/40 guns. The other large battery positions were not turretmounted and consisted of 305-mm to 203-mm guns.
The main defenses were assured by the following numbers of batteries protecting the fortified port areas:
Note: The 280-mm weapons are howitzers.
The above list does not include weapons smaller than 120-mm, nor the numerous anti-aircraft weapons. Like most Italian fortifications, these batteries were superbly camouflaged.
Armored trains continued to serve as mobile artillery. Along the Ligurian coastal front the navy operated four armored trains with four 120-mm guns each and one train with four 152-mm guns. Southern Italy and Sicily were covered by four armored trains with four 152-mm guns and two 76-mm guns, one train with six 102mm guns, and one with four 76-mm guns.
3. Island Defenses
The large number of islands from the Eastern Mediterranean to Sardinia under Italy's control, offered convenient lookout points from which enemy ship traffic could be kept under surveillance, and bases from which the Italian navy could operate. Unfortunately, the cost of building fortifications and the expense of transporting building materials and weapons by sea made it impossible to defend all the available points. Thus only important islands were fortified. Sardinia was selected because it had to be protected because of its proximity to French Corsica, the islands of Elba and Pantelleria because they dominated key straits. The island defenses, like those on the mainland, were outfitted with a wide variety of weapons,including some of the heaviest and most modern. In addition, Sardinia, Elba, Pantelleria, and other islands included smaller weapons.
The following batteries were established before and during the war:
Batteries 2 guns Sardinia Maddalena Cagliari Elba Pantelleria Dodecanese Rhodes Leros +Included one 120-mm gun. 4 guns 5 guns 6 guns 3 guns 1 x 305-mm 1 x 305-mm 2 x 152-mm 1 x 203-120+ 1 x 152-120+ 1 x 152-mm-120+ 1 x 120-mm 1 x 152-120+ 3 x 152-mm 3 x 152-mm 1 x 120-mm 3 x 152-mm 2 x 120-mm 3 x 152-mm 3 x 120-mm 2 x 152-mm 1 x 152-120+ 2 x 120-mm
In some cases plans for building batteries did not come to fruition. Thus the island of Leros was to be the site of Opera Z, a battery of 254-mm and 203-mm guns, that was not built. At Pantelleria construction of the planned heavy batteries proved to be impractical and the project was abandoned. The large defended base area in the Gulf of Naples that was to encompass the coastal islands of Ponza, Ischia, and Capri, did not materialize because the 305-mm guns were not installed.
Many gun positions, such as those built on Rhodes, included underground galleries, magazines, and other rooms, usually hewn into the rock and sometimes lined with bricks. Concrete observation towers for directing the guns were completed.
WEAPONS AND EQUIPMENT
Some of the artillery employed in the Alpine Wall included:
The Coast Artillery included:
WORLD WAR II
The history of the Alpine Wall in World War II was rather brief. The military rushed to complete many of the opere before their entry into the war. During the short campaign in France, the French and Italians fired a few rounds against each other's fortifications with no significant effect.
The only major encounter took place between Fort Chaberton and some of the Maginot ouvrages and advanced posts. Since early in 1939 the citizens of Briancon had suffered from so called "Chabertonitis," a fear engendered by reports that the guns of Fort Chaberton looked "down their throats." When the battle started, the French were not able to respond to Chaberton's fire because the Maginot forts at Briancon were not designed for frontal fire. However, a French battery of 280-mm mortars was soon moved into position under the cover of fog. As soon as the cloud cover lifted from the top of Mount Chaberton, the French let go a volley of huge bombs, smashing one turret after another until the Italian fort was effectively silenced.
The Italians continued working on the Alpine Wall through the war, especially along the old Austrian border. Their efforts were no secret, since they were even reported on in a U.S. Army handbook published in the spring of 1942. Needless to say, Hitler was not pleased with the continued construction in the region. The construction along the Swiss and German borders was soon called the "we-have-nofaith-line" by the press.
In August 1942, Chief-of-Staff General Vittorio Ambrosio reported to the High Command that although the northern border with Germany continued to be strengthened, the lack of materials was causing serious delays. He also pointed out that although plans were made to defend the Swiss frontier with fortified barriers placed on both sides of main roads, only at Sempione was work actually begun. In addition, he wrote, the fortifications of the entire Alpine Wall lacked anti-tank defenses and had inadequate close defense. Despite these problems, General Ambrosio remained convinced of his ability to seal the frontier with Germany.
Soon after Italy entered the war, a French naval squadron sallied forth to attack the fortified coastal areas along the Ligurian coast. The Italians were unable to stop it from bombarding Savona even with the help of the 120-mm guns of Armored Train Number 3. It took a squadron of torpedo boats to drive the French off. Another French attack at Arenzano was met by the 152-mm guns of Battery Mameli and two monitors defending Genoa. Neither side suffered any significant damage even though Battery Mameli managed to score one hit on a French destroyer.
In February 1941 a British squadron of two battleships out of Gibraltar bombarded Genoa. The Mameli battery went back into action, along with Armored Train Number 5 and the old monitors, but their fire was not effective. The result of the encounter was the construction of two new batteries: Battery 250 at Arenzano and Battery 251 at Monte Moro. Each of these batteries, completed in 1942, received a twin 381-mm gun turret.
In June 1943, the Allies bombarded the island of Pantelleria from the air, hitting most of its sixteen-gun batteries after a week of intensive bombing. Fifty-three of the eighty guns were damaged, and the 11,000 man garrison surrendered before the invasion took place.
The new coastal divisions began to prepare defensive positions along the coast before the invasion of Italy in 1943. After the surrender of Italy, the Germans took over the remaining Italian coastal fortifications, and Mussolini's loyal forces manned the battery positions with mixed German crews. The German labor organization, Organization Todt, built new defenses along the coast that were dubbed the Ligurian Wall by the Germans.
No serious attempt was made to breach the Alpine Wall along the Occidental Sector during 1944-45 by the Free French and American forces. The Germans and some of the Fascist units occupied some of the Italian positions. When Italy surrendered, the locals stripped everything that could be carried off from some of the opere, except ammunition and guns. However, most of the fortifications were easily returned to service.
Through the entire war, the Alpine Wall successfully carried out its mission, since it was not attacked. As to whether or not it was a good investment can only be answered by the fact that it was widely believed in 1939 that the French had seriously considered a major ground offensive against northern Italy.
Alpine Front - SouthernTyrol. Bunker on route from Inn Valley with its protective earth covering str
ipped away. (Gunther Reiss)
Alpine Front with France. Distinctive Italian cloche, camouflage removed, on fort overlooking Mt. Cenis Pass. (Karol Vasat)
Left: Alpine Front. Italian bunker with gun embrasure located in Mt. Cenis Pass. (Karol Vasat)
Below. Italian Coastal Position. German artillery casemates built 1943-1944 for Monte Morro battery.(Carlo Alfredo Clerici)
INSERT
Battery AmmiragloToscano, Opera M, Two twin gun turrets at Taranto:
1. 203-mm twin gun turret
2. Magazine
3. Crew's Quarters
4. CO's Room
5. Plotting room
Bardonecchia Sector, Opera 116.
1. Entrance block with MG embrasures (main entrance is at far left and a short distance away were latrines and the kitchen outside the fort, but not shown here)
2. Blocks for AT Gun with embrasure covering facade and fosse
3. MG cloche
4. Caserne, WC, magazines
5. Observation block with cloche
Right hand Page:
Plans of Italian Alpine Forts.
Gravere Opera Grossa 17
Battery Monte Morone
Sette Fontane Bardonecchia
Valle Cenischia Opera 15bis
Melrnise Bardonecchia Opera 88
Piano S Nicolao Opera 32
Borgunovo Bardonecchia Opera 6
Melmise Bardonecchia Opera 87:
I- Entrance
IP- Main Entrance,
IS- Secondary Entrance
A - Heavy MG Position
AC- 47-mm AT gun Position,
P - Block for one 75-mm/26 gun
0 - Observatory
Chapter 8
SCANDINAVIA
BACKGROUND
Although culturally similar, the nations of Scandinavia were not politically united, especially in their common pursuit of neutrality. Except for Sweden, none of these countries had the economic base and manpower to set up extensive permanent fortifications and defend them. Thus, only Sweden managed to remain neutral after 1940.
The only Scandinavian nation with an overseas empire, Denmark, was fast declining as a colonial and military power. Although it still maintained its hold over Greenland, Iceland, and the Faeroe Islands, it had sold the Virgin Islands to the U.S. during World War I. Its fleet was too small to defend the empire, and its army was not large enough to protect the homeland itself.
In the early 1930s, a dispute over settlements in Greenland almost led Denmark to a ruinous war with Norway. Later in the 1930s, in an attempt to modernize its military services, the Danish government decided to update its coastal defenses, especially on the islands that were the key to the rest of the country. "
Norway, which had broken away from Denmark near the end of the Napoleonic Era to form a union with Sweden, became independent in 1905. After the secession, the two nations agreed upon a 20 km wide neutral strip inside the Norwegian border.
Unlike Denmark, Norway enjoyed an easily defendable topography so that its relatively small army was not too great a drawback. The coastline consisted of rugged terrain with sunken valleys known as fjords that led to the seaports that an invader must take to establish a foothold in the country. Many of the fjords leading to the ports were guarded by forts. The small Norwegian navy was based at Horten, in the south. Until 1934, the coastal defenses were entrusted to the army, which included the Fortress Artillery branch created in 1899. The permanent defenses of the naval bases came under the jurisdiction of the navy. In 1934 the navy took over the coast defenses, leaving the army only in charge of the forts facing Sweden.
Sweden reached its military apogee in the eighteenth century but its power waned after it lost Finland to Russia in 1809. It remained, nonetheless, the most populous and most industrialized of the Scandinavian nations. Sweden did little to improve its military position during World War I, except to refurbish its navy. Between the wars it became a major arms producer, which led to an improvement of its own army, despite the government's lack of concern until 1939. It wasn't until the early years of World War II that Sweden decided to build up its armed forces and permanent defenses.
Of the three Scandinavian countries, Norway had the smallest population with only 2.9 million inhabitants, but its geography worked in its favor as far as defense was concerned. Denmark was somewhat more populous, with 3.8 million subjects, but was geographically more vulnerable to invasions. Neither country fielded a significant army, and only Norway owned useful fortifications. Sweden, on the other hand, with its 6.4 million people, had a large population base to work with and significant industrial capacity.
MAJOR FORTIFICATIONS
Danish Coastal Defenses
Norwegian Coastal Defenses and Forts
Swedish Coastal Defenses and Fortress Boden
LOCATION
1. Danish Coastal Defenses
Denmark was a geographic nightmare as far as military defense was concerned. The areas that needed protection were the large Danish islands and Eastern Jutland, where the bulk of the population was concentrated. Jutland was defendable near the border, but its terrain was unfavorable to fixed defenses. A small invasion force would have been able to outflank any fortifications near the border by landing on the sandy beaches of the west coast. In addition, only the small port of Esbjerg, on the west coast of Jutland, offered a practical base of operation. The islands to the east of Jutland, home to at least half of the Danish population, included Sjaelland (Sealand) with the city of Copenhagen, Lolland, Flaster, and Fyn, and were virtually impossible to secure.
The best defensive strategy was to establish coastal batteries to control the narrow waterways between the islands in places like the channels of the Great Beltbetween Fyn, Sjaelland, and Lolland--and Little Belt-between Fyn and Jutland. The advantage of using these islands was that they had a number of small ports suitable for military installations. The island of Bornholm in the Baltic, to the east of the main Danish islands, was of particular strategic importance. At the end of the last century, Denmark decided to concentrate most of its efforts on building a fortress ring around Copenhagen. By the 1930s, most of these coastal positions remained in service, but not all the land forts were finished.
2. Norwegian Coastal Defenses and Forts
The coastline of Norway, dominated by fjords, was easily defended against modern invasions. The Leads, a coastal waterway, provided a safe route for German shipping through neutral territory as long as Norway remained out of the war. The 21,200 km of jagged coast line could shelter naval ships, offering them many possibilities for raiding. However, the conquest of Norway required the acquisition of one or more ports, a hazardous undertaking, since even the old weapons of the 1880s represented a very real danger to vessels in the fjords.
Like most of Norway, the border with Sweden was mostly mountainous, with few routes into Sweden. After declaring, independence from Sweden, Norway, which continued to fear an invasion from its erstwhile confederate, took measures to defend the main routes into its economic heart, southeast of Oslo and east of Trondheim.
The main defensive areas in Norway were found between Halden and Sarpsborg, on the southeastern coast, on the Glomma River in the area of Askim to the southeast of Oslo and north of Sarpsborg, and in the area of Kongsvinger. Their mission was to block the three main routes from Sweden to Oslo.
3. Swedish Coastal Defenses and Fortress Boden
Sweden's extensive coast line covered 7,600 km on the Gulf of Bothnia and the Baltic Sea. Its economic heart lay in the south, extending from the plains of the south-central coastal region to the Smaland highlands. The important mining center in the vicinity of Kiruna-Gallivare, in the north, relied heavily on the Norwegian port of Narvik for the export of its iron ore during the winter months. The key point on the rail line in this region and the invasion route from Finland (pre-1918 Russian border) was fortified at Boden. Numerous rivers flowed from the Kjolen Mountains to the Gulf of Bothnia, limiting the n
umber of roads in the northern half of the country. These rivers created many elongated lakes, especially in the southern half of the country where the lakes and Smaland Highlands, afforded many easily de fended positions. Malmo and Gotberg overlooked the vital passages between the Baltic and North Sea.
Like Norway, Sweden depended on its coastal ports for its security. The size of its population allowed it to have a military force of sufficient strength and in addition, the navy's excellent bases made it possible to keep an enemy at bay.
Because of their location on the Skagerrak, Kattegat, and Baltic, the three Scandinavian countries needed coastal defenses to deter aggression, especially on the Baltic islands of Denmark and Sweden. The Finnish Aland Islands were the key to the Gulf of Bothnia, while Danish Sjaelland and Bornholm, and Swedish Oland and Gotland occupied key points on the Baltic.
HISTORY
In 1920, Denmark abandoned its land defenses, retaining only a number of coastal forts and batteries until 1940. In November 1932, the Danish government passed a defense act to rearm the country. The navy was allowed to build several new vessels and modernize others to defend the coast that included two coast defense battleships with 150-mm guns. Many of the coastal batteries continued to mount the 355-mm, 170-mm, 120-mm, 75-mm guns, and 290-mm howitzers they had in 1918. Some of the weapons, such as 47-mm and 355-mm guns, were actually models from the 1880s. In short, little was done to replace the nation's artillery. The air force, on the other hand, was allowed to acquire some modem equipment to defend key places like the naval base at Copenhagen.
The only significant improvements to the batteries defending the fortress of Copenhagen took place in the 1930s when armored hoods were installed over the armored shields of many of the heavy guns. Before World War II, Denmark owned a total of ten battery positions, some located in forts. One battery dated from the 1890s and most mounted old weapons like the 120-mm cannons. In addition a small number of modern weapons were added after World War I.
