Between 1603 and 1707, Scotland had been involved in the civil wars, the Interregnum, the Restoration, and then the Glorious Revolution (which created more turmoil as some Scots allied themselves with the ousted King James II, others with William III). It was as a result of the Jacobite rebellion in 1745/6 that Highland culture was cut down. The union of Scotland and England was unpopular with Scots, but there were also those who were vocally supportive of union. In 2014, Scotland held a referendum and voters sided to maintain the union. Even so, there are still vocal supporters of independence – which rather goes to show that even after 300 years, at least that hasn’t changed.
67. THERE WERE SEVERAL POPULAR HOW-TO BOOKS
In the seventeenth century, there were quite a few books dedicated to various topics. Gervase Markham (c. 1568–1637) was a poet and a prolific writer on a variety of topics ranging from horsemanship and archery to translations of Italian works. It may come as a surprise to learn that one of the most popular guides to running the home was written by a man. Markham, you see, had also written about all things domestic in The English Housewife, Containing the Inward and Outward Virtues Which Ought to Be in a Complete Woman. It contained information on everything from cosmetics and cookery, to distillations. Hannah Woolley wrote A Gentlewoman’s Companion in 1675 and The Accomplished Lady’s Delight in 1677. These works held an array of useful tips on how to run a home efficiently.
The Ladies Dictionary, Being a General Entertainment of the Fair-Sex, compiled by an unknown author by the initials N.H. and printed for John Dunton in 1694, is another how-to guide. An early kind of dictionary, this large book contains a wide variety of topics among which are brief biographical entries about historical figures, including Joan of Arc and mythological beings such as Hylas. The book also contains useful tips on how to sooth sore nipples and the ‘joys and real comforts’ of marriage. It even has some advice for women hoping to become a lady’s waiting-gentlewoman.
Besides the fact that both Markham’s and Woolley’s treatments for plague seem rather ridiculous to us now, their works nevertheless shed much light on domestic preparations in the Stuart era. All of the books mentioned above are still the go-to sources for researchers.
68. ANNE HYDE WAS A COMMONER WHO BECAME THE MOTHER OF QUEENS
Anne Hyde was born in 1637 to Edward and Frances Hyde. Sir Edward Hyde, Earl of Clarendon, was a respected lawyer and Lord Chancellor for King Charles II during his exile. Clarendon is best remembered in history for having created ‘Clarendon’s Code’ and for writing The History of the Rebellion, which is one of the most important accounts of the English Civil War.
A plain-looking woman, but possessed of a good mind, Clarendon’s daughter later became a lady-in-waiting to Mary, Princess Royal of England and Princess of Orange. It was while she was in this position that she caught the eye of the randy James, Duke of York. Promises of marriage were made – promises he most likely didn’t expect to keep – because he was a prince and she was little better than a servant. They soon embarked on a sexual relationship, which soon enough resulted in Anne becoming pregnant. Obviously, their secret fling could no longer be kept hidden and a full-on scandal broke out. James tried to back out of his promise, and some of his friends came forward to claim that they, too, had carnally known Anne Hyde. His mother, Henrietta Maria, and his sister, Mary, were furious with them both because – in their minds – Anne was decidedly inferior to him in every conceivable way. He was a prince, and as such, only a politically or economically advantageous match would have been acceptable. Charles, annoyed at his brother’s folly, nevertheless forced him to make an honest woman of Anne.
James and Anne married, and the latter moved up the social ladder from commoner to aristocrat by becoming the Duchess of York – a position she fulfilled well. Anne soon gave birth to a son, but the child died soon after. Eventually, however, the Duchess of York gave birth to two daughters who would survive: Mary, in 1662, and Anne, in 1665. At the time of their births, there was little thought that these girls would eventually become queens. After all, Charles was still rather early into his marriage with Catherine of Braganza, and there was time for him to sire legitimate heirs as easily as he had begat his illegitimate children.
As the years went by, Anne grew fat – partially a hereditary trait, as her father the Earl of Clarendon had grown fat as well (and a propensity to put on weight would finally come to beleaguer both her daughters), but also perhaps due to a bit of emotional overeating as a result of James’s constant philandering. James, much like his elder brother, was an unfaithful spouse, and his mistresses had borne him several illegitimate children. Anne’s favourite daughter was Anne, who later became Queen Anne. Mary was James’s favourite child. Near the end of her life, she converted to Catholicism. At the age of thirty-two she died from breast cancer on 31 March 1672; some of her last words were to her husband. ‘Ah, Duke! Death is very terrible! Very terrible!’
69. QUESTIONING A MONARCH’S SEXUALITY WAS A TACTIC USED TO DISCREDIT THEM
It is interesting that every single Stuart monarch who came after the Glorious Revolution has been labelled either homosexual or bisexual. One has to wonder whether this is a mere coincidence or if Jacobite propaganda was the impetus. Indeed, questioning a monarch’s sexuality was perceived as a very good way to discredit them. William III, his wife Mary II, and Mary’s sister Anne have all been labelled homosexual. It is rather unfortunate that the topic of William III’s sexuality has remained a source of political ammunition for those on either side of the debate.
While this remains a source of controversy among historians, the fact remains that there is no evidence that William III was homosexual, or even bisexual. William had a couple of close male friends, mainly Hans Bentinck and later Arnold Joost von Keppel. Following the Glorious Revolution, William’s preference for choosing foreigners as his favourites instead of Englishmen was met with hostility and envy. The Jacobites, William’s enemies, latched on to the idea that the usurper was a homosexual and many explicit Jacobite pamphlets were made to hurt his reputation. When Bentinck became aware of these rumours about William and Arnold Joost van Keppel, he wrote to him about his concerns. William replied, shocked, that he couldn’t believe people would mistake his kindness towards the young man to be criminal (as homosexuality was at that time).
William was, compared with his uncles Charles II and James II, not a highly sexed man. He was also very private about his affairs, which included a very long-standing extramarital affair with Elizabeth Villiers – one of his wife’s ladies-in-waiting. Indeed, it is the Villiers relationship, and Mary’s response to it, which gives us reason to believe that William was probably not homosexual. Mary was grievously hurt when she discovered his affair with Betty, but she never seems to have been hurt or jealous of his relationships with either Bentinck or van Keppel. On her deathbed, Mary pleaded for William to break away from Betty for the sake of his immortal soul. If he had been sexually involved with men, Mary (as a very pious woman) would have begged him to stop such a lifestyle.
Lesbianism, unlike male homosexuality, was not illegal. Mary’s perceived lesbianism stems from her effusive adolescent correspondence with her friend Frances Apsley, later Lady Bathhurst. Mary was an intensely passionate, ultra-feminine girl and she and Frances enjoyed role-playing. Once Mary was married to William, however, all that passion and love was centred on him alone. From what we can gather from her personal papers, Mary had a reasonable sex life with her husband.
Queen Anne’s lesbianism is another popular myth. Supporters cite Sarah Churchill’s memoirs as proof but they forget or ignore the context of those writings. By the time she put quill to paper, Sarah had fallen out with Anne and been replaced by her cousin Abigail Masham as the queen’s favourite. Like William III and Mary II before her, there is no evidence to prove that Anne was anything but heterosexual.
70. THE LEVELLERS AND DIGGERS WERE TOTALLY RADICAL
Although they may sound like modern rock band
s, these socio-political groups comprised two of the most radical ideologies in Stuart Britain. The period of the English Civil Wars is often described as a time in which the ‘world turned upside down’, and as more fringe groups began to evolve, it’s hard to disagree. As more and more people began to question the conditions in which they lived, new groups formed that aimed to address grievances. As with many other topics briefly discussed in this book, the Leveller ideology is too complex to explain in sufficient depth, but it was quite popular because it demanded radical change.
The Levellers believed in equality and suffrage for all men (with some exceptions). The most notable Levellers were Colonel Thomas Rainsborough and ‘Freeborn’ John Lilburne. The latter spent a large amount of his adulthood in prison. Eventually, Lilburne was at odds with the new republic as well and was imprisoned and exiled. By the end of his life, however, he had converted to Quakerism.
There were quite a few Levellers in the New Model Army because the movement’s aims were in keeping with their views. The inherent popularity of the Leveller ideology didn’t sit comfortably with Cromwell and his associates. Leveller momentum led to the Putney Debates of 1647. These debates were talks held at St Mary’s Church in Putney, and there members of the New Model Army discussed the future of the nation and officers listened to the concerns and grievances of the common soldiers – many of whom were owed pay. One of the Levellers’ main speakers was Colonel Rainsborough, who said, ‘I think that the poorest he that is in England hath a life to live as the greatest he.’ Royalists murdered Rainsborough in 1648 (though some suspect Parliamentarian involvement as well).
The Levellers were increasingly a menace in Cromwell’s eyes, and things soon took a decidedly violent turn. In April 1649, the Bishopsgate Mutiny saw members of Colonel Whalley’s army resist orders to leave London’ for this, fifteen were court-martialled and a few were sentenced to death, although Robert Lockier was the only one of them to be executed. That wasn’t the end of it. In the Banbury Mutiny of the following month, soldiers from the New Model Army rose up against Cromwell but failed. On Cromwell’s orders, the three leaders of the mutiny – James Thompson, Corporal Perkins and John Church – were executed by firing squad on 17 May 1649. All three were Levellers. Those who believe in the principles for which the Levellers stood commemorate the men’s deaths annually on Levellers’ Day.
The Diggers, who referred to themselves as the ‘True Levellers’ (so as not to be confused with the Levellers), were a Protestant Christian group founded by Gerrard Winstanley and were even more radical than the Levellers. They wanted to abolish the monarchy and wanted land to be communal (hence the ‘diggers’ name). However, by 1650, the Diggers as a group were largely finished.
71. A PORTUGUESE PRINCESS MADE TEA-DRINKING FASHIONABLE IN ENGLAND
Princess Catalina da Braganza, known to us as Charles II’s wife and queen consort, Catherine of Braganza, came to England with a fondness for drinking tea. Although a costly beverage, the custom was already popular among the nobility back in her native country of Portugal. When she first appeared before her husband for the first time, she was asked if there was anything she would like to drink following her long journey. When she replied that she would like a cup of tea, this was met with amusement and a glass of beer was suggested as a more suitable beverage. After all, beer was the most popular drink in the country. In time, however, the Queen’s favourite beverage began to be consumed by other ladies at court. After all, the habits and fashions of queens were naturally emulated by everyone who could afford to do so. Soon enough, this expensive and exotic drink became fashionable among members of the upper echelons of society.
That being said, some coffeehouses – namely Garaway’s – claimed to have sold tea as a drink a couple of years before Catherine even set foot on English soil. Tea was consumed black with some sugar. As fine and fragile tea sets were made, milk began to be poured into the cup first in order for it not to break when the boiling water was put it. Even though mugs and teacups have become stronger throughout the subsequent three hundred years, it is still considered correct practice to put the milk in the cup first.
Later on in the nineteenth century, Anna Russell, the 7th Duchess of Bedford, was credited with the custom of afternoon tea. (On that note, the Dukes of Bedford have lived in Woburn Abbey for a few hundred years; it contains some amazing sixteenth- and seventeenth-century artwork and was visited thrice by King Charles I). Eventually, when tea became more widely available, it became popular with all parts of society and eventually became the most popular non-alcoholic beverage in British culture. As we all know, it’s always a good time for a cuppa.
72. TWO ROYAL SISTERS FELL OUT OVER THE DUKE OF MARLBOROUGH’S TEMPESTUOUS WIFE
An endless variety of things can cause an irreparable rift between siblings, but in the case of the two York sisters – Mary and Anne Stuart – the cause of their falling-out was largely down to one person. Sarah Churchill (née Jennings) was a tempestuous, manipulative lady, and the more docile Anne was quite malleable in Sarah’s hands. The three girls had performed together in John Crowne’s masque, Calisto, or The Chaste Nymph, in 1675. Anne and her elder sister Mary had had more than their fair share of childhood squabbles, as is sometimes, if not usually, the case with siblings. There were even jealous arguments about mutual friends, particularly Frances Apsley.
When Mary left England to live with William in the Dutch Republic, Anne grew closer to Sarah, who soon married John Churchill, a rising military figure. Anne and Sarah even used pet names for each other. Anne was Mrs Morley and Sarah was Mrs Freeman. In 1683, Anne married Prince George of Denmark – a marriage that would be both very happy but very tragic with regard to their children.
It was largely due to Sarah’s influence that Anne left her father to support William of Orange. After her father’s exile, Mary returned to England and found her sister was largely under Sarah’s thumb. Later, when Anne rather uncharacteristically asked her sister, now the queen, for a higher stipend, Mary smelled a rat. Mary knew the idea was Sarah’s, not Anne’s. Mary, unwisely choosing to confront her sister about Sarah when Anne was recovering from a miscarriage, told her to break her friendship with Sarah. Anne stubbornly refused to acquiesce to Mary’s demands, and the sisters fell out and never saw each other again.
As Mary lay dying from haemorrhagic smallpox in December of 1694, Anne tried to see her but was denied from doing so, either from Lady Derby or by William himself. Thus, the estranged Stuart sisters were never reconciled. When William died in 1702 and the throne passed to Anne, Sarah rose to even greater prominence and power. Following her husband’s decisive victory at the Battle of Blenheim, a grateful Queen Anne gave her friends the Dukedom of Marlborough and the royal estate of Woodstock. There they built Blenheim Palace.
Unfortunately, Sarah’s manner towards the queen was often rude and insulting. On one occasion, she nastily told Anne to ‘be quiet!’ and eventually the queen had finally had enough of being belittled by her so-called friend. They had a terrible argument and the woman who had been the cause of the strife between the royal sisters was finally removed from her position of power. Sarah’s cousin, Abigail Masham, took Sarah’s place as Anne’s favourite until the last Stuart monarch’s death in 1714. Sarah, vindictive to the end, perpetuated malicious rumours about Anne’s sexuality, even though there was no basis for them. Things didn’t end so well for Sarah, though; her beloved husband died two years after Queen Anne, and her hot-tempered attitude ultimately alienated her from most of her children.
73. ROUNDHEADS AND CAVALIERS BOTH HAD IMPORTANT PLAYERS
In war, there are important figures to be found on both sides. James Graham, 1st Marquess and 5th Earl of Montrose, remains one of the great romantic heroes of the Royalist side. Although he was a member of the Scottish Kirk and had signed the National Covenant in 1638, he was not an extremist and decided to support King Charles I. Following the Battle of Naseby, Montrose went into exile on the Continent. After the
king’s execution in 1649, Montrose loyally served Charles II and fought for him in the latter part of the War of the Three Kingdoms (third English Civil War). In April of 1650, Montrose’s small army was defeated and he found his way to MacLeod, who sold him out for the hefty ransom. Without a trial, Montrose was executed by hanging. His body was then quartered, the pieces sent to various towns in Scotland as a warning to others and his head mounted on a spike, where it stayed for eleven years until the Restoration.
General Thomas Fairfax, Parliamentarian leader, is one of the few figures from the English Civil Wars to be respected on both sides of the fence. He famously refused to sign the death warrant of Charles I, and as he was one of the main men on the Parliamentary side, he certainly would have been under pressure to sign it. Fairfax did not attend the king’s execution, but was at prayer. According to John Aubrey, Fairfax had some of his troops protect the Bodleian Library. In later years, Fairfax received Roger Dodsworth’s collections of historical papers (Dodsworth was an English antiquarian) and donated these to the library. Leeds Castle played a big role during the English Civil War, as it was a prison and arsenal and had the benefit of having its owner on the winning side – Culpepper supported Cromwell’s Parliamentarians. The Battle of Maidstone of 1648 took place not far from the castle, in which you can see Lord Fairfax’s doublet on display.
Edward Montagu, the 2nd Earl of Manchester, was a commander of parliamentary forces and was respected by both Parliamentarian and Royalist alike because of his disposition. As the Major-General of the Eastern Association Army, he fought at such battles as Marston Moor. Unhappy with the direction things were going, the more moderate Montagu fell out with Cromwell and had to resign his commission. In a dignified move, he quietly backed away from politics during the Interregnum and became a strong supporter of the Restoration. Charles II in return gave Montagu the position of Lord Chamberlain, and Montagu’s sons the positions of Master of Horse. The 2nd Earl of Manchester died in 1671.
The Stuarts in 100 Facts Page 11
