88.Madison Grant, The Passing of the Great Race: Or The Racial Basis of European History (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1922), passim. From 1916 to 1922, Scribner’s published four editions of Grant’s book, each slightly different from the others.
89.Grant, Passing of the Great Race, 153.
90.Grant, Passing of the Great Race, 16.
91.Grant, Passing of the Great Race, 319.
92.Stefan Kühl, The Nazi Connection: Eugenics, American Racism, and German National Socialism (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994), 83.
93.Paul J. Wendling, Nazi Medicine and the Nuremberg Trials: From Medical Warcrimes to Informed Consent (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2004), 229.
94.Spiro, Defending the Master Race, 195.
95.Edith R. Spaulding and William Healy, “Inheritance as a Factor in Criminality: A Study of a Thousand Cases of Young Repeated Offenders,” paper presented at the Physical Basis of Crime Symposium, Annual Meeting of the American Academy of Medicine, Minneapolis, 1914, 857.
96.Walter Lippmann, “The Abuse of the Tests,” The New Republic 32, no. 415 (1922): 9.
97.Clarence Darrow, “The Eugenics Cult,” American Mercury 8, no. 30 (1926): 129–130.
98.R. C. Punnett, quoted in Daniel Okrent, The Guarded Gate: Bigotry, Eugenics, and the Law That Kept Two Generations of Jews, Italians, and Other European Immigrants Out of America (New York: Scribner’s, 2019), 125.
99.Garland E. Allen, Thomas Hunt Morgan: The Man and His Science (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1978), 142.
100.Garland E. Allen, “Is a New Eugenics Afoot?” Science 264 (2001): 61.
101.Kevles, In the Name of Eugenics, 122.
102.Allen, “Eugenics Record Office,” 250.
103.Chase, The Legacy of Malthus, xxiv.
104.Allen, “Is a New Eugenics Afoot?” 61.
105.T. M. Sonneborn, Herbert Spencer Jennings (1868–1947): A Biographical Memoir (Washington, DC: National Academy of Sciences, 1975), 188.
106.Herbert S. Jennings, “Heredity and Environment,” The Scientific Monthly 19, no. 3 (1924): 226.
107.Jennings, “Heredity and Environment,” 225–31.
108.Harry Bruinius, Better for All the World (New York: Knopf, 2006), 51.
109.Deposition of Harry Laughlin, National Archives identifier 45637229, 470; National Archive DocsTeach, accessed March 21, 2019, https://www.docsteach.org/documents/document/deposition-of-harry-laughlin-eugenics-buck-v-bell? tmpl=component&print=1&ml=1&iframe=1.
110.Cohen, Imbeciles, 270.
111.Edwin Black, War Against the Weak: Eugenics and America’s Campaign to Create a Master Race (New York: Four Walls Eight Windows, 2003).
112.Thomas C. Williams, “Crimes of Being,” New York Times Magazine, January 29, 2017, 35.
113.Kühl, Nazi Connection, 25.
114.Kühl, Nazi Connection, 88–89.
115.Philip R. Reilly, Surgical Solution: A History of Involuntary Sterilization in the United States (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1991), 69.
116.Black, War against the Weak, 386.
117.Iowa Planning Commission, White House Conference on Child Health and Protection, Proceedings, Des Moines, IA, 1932, 397, GDS.
118.Kuhl, Nazi Connection, 58.
119.Kuhl, Nazi Connection, 43.
120.Black, War against the Weak, 390.
121.Black, War against the Weak, 392.
122.Allen, “Eugenics Record Office,” 252.
123.Bentley Glass, “Geneticists Embattled: Their Stand against Rampant Eugenics and Racism in America During the 1920s and 1930s,” Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 130, no. 1 (1986): 152.
124.Eric Kandel and Larry Squire, “Neuroscience: Breaking Down Scientific Barriers to the Study of Brain and Mind,” Science 290, no. 5494 (2000): 1113, 1117.
125.Henry L. Minton, email to Marilyn Brookwood, December 15, 2010.
126.Minton 2010 email to Brookwood.
Chapter Five: A Clinical Surprise
1.Skeels, “Children in Foster Homes,” 92.
2.Skodak and Skeels, “A Final Follow-Up Study,” 94.
3.Skodak Crissey, “Marie Skodak Crissey,” in Models, 77; Skodak and Skeels, “A Final Follow-Up Study,” 89; Skodak, “Adult Status,” draft, 10.
4.Skodak Crissey, in Fischer, 8, MSC.
5.Claudia Goldin and Lawrence F. Katz, “Human Capital and Social Capital: The Rise of Secondary Schooling in America, 1910–1940,” Journal of Interdisciplinary History 29, no. 4 (1999): 703.
6.For employment classifications the psychologists relied on the US census scale of occupations I to VII. Occupations in the highest category, I, were classified as “professionals”; those in the lowest, VII, were day laborers.
7.Skeels, “Children in Foster Homes,” 93–97.
8.The mothers for whom there were IQ test records gave birth in the indigent care ward of University Hospital. No other mothers were asked to take IQ tests.
9.Skeels and Skodak, “Adult Status of Individuals,” draft, 2, MSC.
10.Skodak, “Adult Status,” draft, 10.
11.Skodak Crissey, interview by Senn,
12.Skodak Crissey, interview by Barbara Kalbfell, October 31, 1979 CGI.
13.Albert Wiggam, “Are Dummies Born or Made?” Ladies Home Journal, March 1940, 37, 123–24.
14.Skodak Crissey, “How It All Began,” 11.
15.Skodak Crissey, “How It All Began,” 11.
16.Skeels, “Children in Foster Homes,” 105.
17.Beth Wellman, “The Fickle IQ,” Sigma Xi Quarterly 28, no. 2 (1940): 60.
18.Harold Skeels, George Stoddard, Beth Wellman, interview by Albert E. Wiggam, April 21, 1939, 3. Faculty and Staff Vertical Files, University of Iowa Libraries.
19.Skodak Crissey, interview by Fischer, December, 10, 1969, MSC.
20.M. N. Voldeng, Tenth Biennial Report of the Superintendent, Hospital for Epileptics and School for Feebleminded at Woodward, IA, 1934, 4.
21.Joseph F. Wall and the Federal Writers’ Project, Iowa, A Guide to The Hawkeye State (New York: Viking, 1938), 510.
22.Skodak, “Adult Status,” draft, 4.
23.Asbell, “Case of the Wandering IQs,” 33.
24.Skeels and Skodak, “Adult Status of Individuals,” draft, 4–5, MSC.
25.Skeels and Skodak, “Adult Status of Individuals,” draft, 4–5, MSC.
26.Frederick Kuhlman, A Handbook of Mental Tests: A Further Revision and Extension of the Binet-Simon Scale (Baltimore: Warwick & York, 1922), 89–91.
27.Skeels, “Adult Status of Children,” 6.
28.Asbell, “Case of the Wandering IQs,”32.
29.Asbell, “Case of the Wandering IQs,” 33.
30.George D. Stoddard, “Intellectual Development of the Child: An Answer to the Critics of the Iowa Studies,” School and Society 51, 1322 (1940): 532.
31.Arthur R. Vinsel, “He Gave the Retarded Hope: Newport Man Reflects on Effects of Research,” Daily Pilot, August 31, 1968, 3.
32.Asbell, “Case of the Wandering IQs,”33.
33.Asbell, “Case of the Wandering IQs,” 123.
34.Asbell, “Case of the Wandering IQs,” 33.
35.William T. Greenough, James E. Black, and Christopher S. Wallace, “Experience and Brain Development,” Research in Child Development 58, no. 3 (1987): 539.
36.Marie Skodak Crissey, “Environmental Factors in Intelligence,” paper delivered at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association, New York, February 16, 1967, 9.
37.Harold M. Skeels and Harold B. Dye, “Study of the Effects of Differential Stimulation,” 117.
38.Skeels and Skodak, “Adult Status of Individuals,” draft, 4, MSC.
39.Skodak, “Adult Status,” draft, 6.
40.Skodak, “Adult Status,” draft, 6.
41.Vinsel, “He Gave the Retarded Hope,” 2.
42.Vinsel, “He Gave the Retarded Hope,” 2.
Chapter Six: A Revelation and a Mystery
2.Southwest Iowa Guide Book: Geology—History—Points of Interest, ed. L. S. Hill, Federal Writer’s Project, ca. 1937, 162.
3.Wall, The Hawkeye State, 534.
4.Skeels and Dye, “Study of the Effects of Differential Stimulation,” 134.
5.Wayne Dennis, “Causes of Retardation among Institutionalized Children: Iran,” Journal of Genetic Psychology 96 (1960): 59.
6.Baldwin, “Heredity and Environment—or Capacity and Training?” 405.
7.Hunt, Intelligence and Experience, 19.
8.Lippmann, “Abuse of the Tests.”
9.Lewis M. Terman, “The Great Conspiracy or The Impulse Imperious of Intelligence Testers, Psychoanalyzed and Exposed by Mr. Lippmann,” The New Republic, December 27, 1922, 119.
10.Lewis M. Terman and Dorothy Wagner, “The Intelligence Quotients of 68 Children in a California Orphanage,” Journal of Delinquency 3 (1918): 120.
11.Bernadine Barr, “Spare Children, 1900–1945: Inmates of Orphanages as Subjects of Research in Medicine and in the Social Sciences in America” (PhD diss., Stanford University, 1992), 187.
12.Terman and Wagner, “Intelligence Quotients of 68 Children,” 121.
13.Edward L. Thorndike, “Measurement in Education,” in The Twenty-First Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education: Intelligence Tests and Their Use, ed. Guy M. Whipple (Bloomington, IL: Public School Publishing, 1921), 9.
14.Stephen S. Colvin, “Principles Underlying the Construction and Use of Intelligence Tests,” in The Twenty-First Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education, 11, 18.
15.Marion R. Trabue, “The Use of Intelligence Tests in Junior High Schools,” in The Twenty-First Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education, 177.
16.William C. Bagley, “Educational Determinism; or Democracy and the I.Q,” School and Society 15, no. 380 (1922): 380, 376.
17.Terman, Measurement of Intelligence, 91–92.
18.Terman, Measurement of Intelligence, 60–61.
19.Lewis M. Terman, “The Psychological Determinist; or Democracy and the I.Q.,” Journal of Educational Research 6, no.1 (1922): 58.
20.William C. Bagley, “Professor Terman’s Determinism: A Rejoinder,” Journal of Educational Research 6, no. 5 (1922): 385.
21.Helen T. Woolley, “Educational Research and Statistics: The Validity of Standards of Mental Measurement in Young Childhood,” School and Society 21, no. 538 (1925): 478–79.
22.Lewis M. Terman to Guy M. Whipple, December 3, 1927.
23.William C. Bagley to Lewis M. Terman, December 17, 1927.
24.Spiro, Defending the Master Race, 179.
25.Carl C. Brigham, A Study of American Intelligence (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1923), xiii.
26.Franz Samelson, “World War I Intelligence Testing and the Development of Psychology,” Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences 13 (1977): 278.
27.Brigham, Study of American Intelligence, 146.
28.Brigham, Study of American Intelligence, 159.
29.Brigham, Study of American Intelligence, 95, 100.
30.Carl C. Brigham to Lewis M. Terman, December 27, 1927.
31.Brigham to Davenport, December 8, 1929.
32.Carl C. Brigham, “Intelligence Tests of Immigrant Groups,” Psychological Review 37, no. 2 (1930): 165.
33.Nicholas Lemann, The Big Test: The Secret History of the American Meritocracy (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2000), 29.
34.Garland Allen, “The Role of Experts in Scientific Controversy,” in Scientific Controversies: Case Studies in the Resolution and Closure of Disputes in Science and Technology, ed. Hugo T. Englehardt and Arthur L. Caplan (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1987), 197.
35.Raymond Pearl, “The Biology of Superiority,” American Mercury 12, no. 47 (1927): 260.
36.Brigham to Terman, December 27, 1927.
37.Truman Kelley, Interpretation of Educational Measurement (Yonkers, NY: World Book, 1927), 124.
38.Brigham, “Intelligence Tests of Immigrant Groups,” 164–5.
39.Brigham, cited in Lemann, The Big Test, 34.
40.Lemann, The Big Test, 32.
41.Barbara Burks, “A Summary of Literature on the Determiners of the Intelligence Quotient and the Educational Quotient,” in The Twenty-Seventh Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education: Nature and Nurture, Part II, ed. Guy M Whipple (Bloomington, IL: Public School Publishing, 1928), 280.
42.Helen E. Barrett and Helen L. Koch, “The Effects of Nursery-School Training upon the Mental-Test Performance of a Group of Orphanage Children,” The Pedagogical Seminary and Journal of Genetic Psychology 37 (1930): 119.
43.Mandel Sherman and Cora B. Key, “The Intelligence of Isolated Mountain Children,” Child Development 3, no. 4 (1932): 279.
44.Sherman and Key, “Intelligence of Isolated Mountain Children,” 289.
45.Frank N. Freeman, “The Concept of Intelligence as a Fixed or Unmodifiable Feature of the Personality.” Fourth Conference on Research in Child Development, National Research Council Committee on Child Development, 1933, Appendix H, 2.
46.Skodak Crissey, “Beth Lucy Wellman,” 353.
47.Asbell, “Case of the Wandering IQs,” 122.
48.Skodak, “Adult Status,” draft, 6.
49.Skeels, “Records of Experimental Group.”
50.Skeels, “Records of Experimental Group.”
51.Skeels, “Records of Experimental Group.”
52.Skeels, “Records of Experimental Group.”
53.Skeels, “Records of Experimental Group.”
54.Louis C. Branca, interview by Marilyn Brookwood, September 12, 2012.
55.Skeels Records, 1939–1966, Case 11.
56.Louis C. Branca, telephone call with author, June 4, 2015.
57.Samuel Z. Orgel and Jacob Tuckman, “Nicknames of Institutional Children,” American Journal of Orthopsychiatry 5, no. 3 (1935): 276–285.
58.Robert Wallace, “A Lifetime Thrown Away by a Mistake 59 Years Ago,” Life, March 24, 1958, 121.
59.Wallace, “A Lifetime Thrown Away,” 121.
60.Branca, interview by Marilyn Brookwood, June 5, 2015.
61.Branca, interview by Marilyn Brookwood, June 5, 2015.
62.Branca, email to Marilyn Brookwood, February 25, 2014.
63.Branca, interview by Marilyn Brookwood, June 12, 2012.
64.Skeels, Records, 1933–1966, Case 15.
65.Skeels, Records, 1933–1966, Case 17.
66.Skeels, Records, 1933–1966, Case 20.
67.Skeels, Records, 1933–1936, Case 20.
68.Skeels, Records, 1933–1966, Case 20.
69.Branca, interview by Marilyn Brookwood.
70.Asbell, “Case of the Wandering IQs,” 117.
71.Marie Skodak Crissey, interview by Fischer, 14.
72.Skeels’s Records, 1933–1966, Case 19.
73.Skeels and Dye, “Study of the Effects of Differential Stimulation,” 129.
Chapter Seven: Orphan Studies Out in Public
1.Wellman, “Fickle IQ,” 52.
2.Wellman, “The Effect of Pre-School Attendance,” 48–69; Beth Wellman, “Some New Bases for Interpretation of the IQ,” Pedagogical Seminary and Journal of Genetic Psychology 41, no. 1 (1932): 116–126.
3.Skeels et al., “Study of Environmental Stimulation,” 20.
4.Skeels et al., “Study of Environmental Stimulation,” 10–11.
5.Skeels et al., “Study of Environmental Stimulation,” 21.
6.Skeels and Skodak, “Adult Status of Individuals,” draft, 9.
7.Skeels et al., “Study of Environmental Stimulation,” 4.
8.Wellman, “Fickle IQ,” 54.
9.Skeels et al., “Study of Environmental Stimulation,”13�
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10.Skeels et al., “Study of Environmental Stimulation,” 13–14.
11.Barr, “Educating Orphans and Educating Psychologists,” 35.
12.Quoted in Skeels et. al., “Study of Environmental Stimulation,” 25.
13.Quoted in Skeels et. al., “Study of Environmental Stimulation,” 26.
14.Skeels et al., “Study of Environmental Stimulation,” 23–24.
15.Skeels et al., “Study of Environmental Stimulation,” 23–24.
16.Skeels et al., “Study of Environmental Stimulation,” 23–24.
17.Skeels et al., “Study of Environmental Stimulation,” 23.
18.Skeels et al., “Study of Environmental Stimulation,” 34–35.
19.Skeels et al., “Study of Environmental Stimulation,” 4.
20.Skeels et al., “Study of Environmental Stimulation,” 13.
21.Wellman, “Fickle IQ,” 54.
22.Skeels et al., “Study of Environmental Stimulation,” 44–46.
23.Skeels et al., “Study of Environmental Stimulation,” 44.
24.Skeels et al. “Study of Environmental Stimulation,” 118.
25.Wellman, “Fickle IQ,” 55.
26.Wellman, “Fickle IQ,” 60.
27.Marie Skodak Crissey, interview by Barbara Kalbfell, October 31, 1979, CGI.
28.Marie Skodak Crissey, “The Mental Development of Children Whose True Mothers Are Feebleminded,” Child Development 9, no. 3 (1938): 303–304.
29.Skodak Crissey, “Mental Development of Children,” 305–307.
30.Marie Skodak, “Children in Foster Homes: A Study of Mental Development,” University of Iowa Studies in Child Welfare 16, no. 1 (1939): 37–126.
31.Skodak, “Children in Foster Homes,” 42.
32.Skodak, “Children in Foster Homes,” 45.
33.George S. Speer, “Intelligence of Foster Children,” Pedagogical Seminary and Journal of Genetic Psychology 47, no. 1 (1940): 51–53.
34.George D. Stoddard, The Meaning of Intelligence (New York: Macmillan, 1943), 361–3.
35.Stoddard, Meaning of Intelligence, 363.
36.Beth L. Wellman, “Growth of Intelligence under Differing School Environments,” Journal of Experimental Education 6, no. 2 (1934): 80–81.
37.Skeels, “Children in Foster Homes,” 91.
38.Harold M. Skeels, “A Cooperative Orphanage Research,” Journal of Experimental Education 30, no. 6 (1937): 444.
The Orphans of Davenport Page 35
