his era. The avenging spirit of old Berlifi tzing, taking the form of a horse – rather
than a robed, hooded ghost dogging the footsteps of its enemy to avenge wrongs
perpetrated by the villainous protagonist – is made by Poe to symbolize the animal
or non - rational impulses in young Baron Frederick Metzengerstein ’ s nature. Just as
artistic, a symbolic marriage takes place between Frederick and the horse. Indeed,
they become inseparable; well before the end of the story Frederick is rendered sub-
servient to his uncontrollable other, as the horse may reasonably be designated. In
this tale Poe may have adapted the folk theme of Satan ’ s appearing astride a great
black horse to claim his victims. Poe also adapted the folk belief that unions between
humans and non - humans culminated in tragedy. Fittingly, amidst the destruction of
Castle Metzengerstein occasioned by a great storm and fi re, Frederick is transported
into the unknown by the horse. This bonding of human with animal, here representa-
tive of bestial impulses subsuming human(e) emotion, becomes a repeated theme in
Poe ’ s fi ction (as well as in his renowned poem, “ The Raven, ” composed years after he
commenced experimenting with fi ction).
For example, in “ The Black Cat, ” the murderous protagonist seems to become less
and less like a human and more and more like an animal, whose temperament shifts
unexpectedly from docile and companionable to vicious and destructive. Meantime,
the cat comes to the fore as motivated by human emotions, i.e., revealing the murder
and its perpetrator. Poe
’
s protagonists usually move relentlessly into emotional
-
intellectual isolation. “ The System of Dr. Tarr and Professor Fether ” and “ Hop - Frog ”
are also stories in which human - animal characteristics are delightfully ambivalent.
Poe
’
s creative writings often leave readers thinking that they have confronted an
enigma, so we may well wonder if, in considering another story, “ The Murders in the
Rue Morgue, ” we should think of the orangutan as merely an unusual type of mur-
derer, or whether we witness a symbolic construct of human - animal - sexual impulses.
Whether Poe ’ s own readers would immediately discern such coalescences we may
never know, though more recent academic audiences certainly have offered such
hypotheses. 4
Creating “ The Murders in the Rue Morgue ” as the fi rst modern detective story,
Poe was also in part perpetrating a literary hoax. That is, the story may be read as a
subtle transition from antecedent Gothic thrillers to what in many cases still consti-
tute the hallmarks of fi rst - rate detective fi ction, despite the narrator ’ s disclaimers
about writing a romance (another frequent early synonym, as was “ tragedy, ” for what
we now call Gothic fi ction). Many recent chroniclers of detective fi ction seem to forget
its derivations from Gothicism, and so a corrective is in order. 5 We might also detect
kindred hoax elements in “ The Mystery of Marie Rog ê t ” and “ The Purloined Letter. ”
In the former Poe had apparently planned a conclusion based on what newspaper
accounts of the murder in New York of Mary Rogers, on whom he based his character,
24
Benjamin F. Fisher
might have suggested as the cause for her murder. So he had to mull and rewrite once
newspapers reported causes different from what were originally presumed to bring
about the murder of Mary. In “ The Purloined Letter ” Dupin, Poe ’ s sleuth, effects a
hoax upon the villainous Minister D – when he purloins the incriminating letter the
Minister had pilfered from a noble lady for blackmail purposes.
Not only the characters but also the settings in Poe ’ s stories function symbolically
to enhance those trajectories. Poe discerned how to rework what by his time had
become fairly shopworn types of settings into symbolic art. Although some readers
might object to the recurrent macabre architecture and landscapes obviously indebted,
in part, to the haunted castle that quickly became a(n overworked) hallmark in Gothic
fi ction, Poe transformed that trope into functional art representative of the housing
for the human mind. Conversely, in some stories, for example, “ MS. Found in a Bottle ”
or “ A Descent into the Maelstr ö m, ” landscapes operate to rouse terror within the
protagonist who is subsumed by them, just as the prison and its appointments nearly
overcome the protagonist in
“
The Pit and the Pendulum.
”
Poe
’
s often extended
descriptions of settings have led some readers to view them as excrescences in his
work, though a counter - line of interpretation has likewise enjoyed great currency.
The Signora Psyche Zenobia, in “ How to Write a Blackwood Article, ” is advised:
“ Sensations are the great things after all ” ( CW 2. 340), and that precept serves as a
succinct defi nition for Poe ’ s method of literary symbolism.
Although “ Metzengerstein ” may seem to be little more than an assembly of trite
Gothic elements, a somewhat different outreach characterizes the other four tales
published in the Saturday Courier . “ Loss of Breath, ” “ Bon - Bon, ” and “ The Duc De
L ’ Omelette ” contain features that could be commonplaces in terror tales of the day.
Mr. Lackobreath, the protagonist in the fi rst story, might be near literary kin to old
Wilhelm von Berlifi tzing in
“
Metzengerstein
”
because Lackobreath
’
s soul moves
through several transmigrations before his adventures conclude. This process, metem-
psychosis, has origins in ancient classical thought, and several other writers who were
contemporaries of Poe experimented with it, most notably Robert Montgomery Bird,
whose novel, Sheppard Lee (1836) Poe reviewed, not wholly favorably, as if the critic ’ s
censure might have resulted from envy toward a rival creator of supernatural/comic
fi ction. From another perspective, “ Loss of Breath ” may depict male sexuality (more
precisely temporary impotence) as a major theme. Thus notwithstanding the comic
touches, as if the story were a parody of then current terror fi ction, there may be a
more sober undercurrent at work. 6
“ A Tale of Jerusalem ” differs from the other four tales because it has no Gothic
substance at all. Here Poe deftly satirized Horace Smith ’ s popular novel, Zillah: A
Tale of the Holy City , which had the running header “ A Tale of Jerusalem ” (1828).
Poe ’ s story features none of the supernaturalism that is uppermost in the other four.
Roman conquerors slyly substitute a pig for a requested lamb to use in Jewish sacrifi ce;
the Jews, who are confi ned within the city and want a suitable animal, are so surprised
and upset when they discover the pig that they permit the basket containing the
animal to drop outside the walls. Poe ’ s lifting many phrases from Smith ’ s novel and
Poe and the Short Story
25
fashioning them for his own purposes suggest that his primary intent was to burlesque
a best - selling novel and its author. With the passage of time, and the fading of Horace
Smith ’ s literary reputation, the parallels between Poe ’ s tale and Zillah are no longer
as evident to us as they would have been to Poe ’ s readers.
II
Just what Poe ’ s original intents as regards the fi ve tales published in the Saturday
Courier may have been remains unclear. Because he recognized in the Gothic tale and
other popular fi ctional forms of his day ready targets for satire and parody, he under-
took a project in which humor and horror often intertwined, a contemplated book to
be called “ Tales of the Folio Club. ” The Folio Club membership included caricatures
of popular authors, mostly writers of fi ction, who met one evening a month, begin-
ning the event with ample (alcoholic) drink and much good food. Gluttony and
intoxication often resulted, such that by the time each tale was read and debate over
its merits and demerits ensued, the critical abilities of those assembled were muddled.
Part of Poe ’ s plan was to lampoon not just popular fi ction and its authors, but also
the state of literary criticism as it then existed. The reader of each tale doubled as the
narrator - protagonist, each evincing takeoffs of the personal characteristics and literary
methods of the actual writer being mimed. Differences in opinions concerning who
was to have presented a particular tale continue to be debated by scholars. 7
Had “ Tales of the Folio Club ” been published, Poe may well have been credited
for creating a frame narrative book comparable with Tales of a Traveller , The Country
of the Pointed Firs , Winesburg, Ohio , to name a few among many cycles/sequences of
short fi ction, or, for that matter, in verse, Idylls of the King , Modern Love , or the Spoon
River Anthology . Poe ’ s experimental book never saw print, however, because his subtle
humor, evaluators reported, would baffl e average readers, thereby putting sales at risk.
Poe may have revised his earlier tales to fi t within the Folio Club frame, to which he
added others besides the Saturday Courier submissions. Another Folio Club tale, “ MS.
Found in a Bottle, ” won the prize for the best prose story in another contest, sponsored
by the Baltimore Saturday Visiter . Poe actually submitted several stories, assembled
into booklet form, so the judges had diffi culties in choosing because all the tales
seemed equally fi ne.
“
MS Found
”
may have had greater timely appeal because
Baltimore at the time was a far more important port city than it is today. 8
The bizarre situations, the overwrought characters, and the hyperbolic language in
these early stories may have been perfect features in stories presumably read by authors
who had eaten and imbibed too freely. Such an aura might also have made “ Metz-
engerstein ” appear in context as an altogether splendid accomplishment – its evident
“ German ” features appealing to the befuddled audience listening to its author reading.
Poe at one point stated that the critical debates concerning each tale were intended
as a hit at the pretensions of contemporary literary criticism, and thus the typical
Gothic qualities evident on the surfaces of the tale might have met with critical
26
Benjamin F. Fisher
commendation. The overfed and intoxicated audience might, of course, have differed
markedly in their evaluations of this and other equally fantastic stories. For example,
“ The Visionary ” (the original title of the story more commonly known as “ The Assig-
nation ” ), might well have stirred controversy because of the mysterious Byronic lover.
The varied biographical accounts of Lord Byron that had been appearing since his
death not quite a decade before Poe ’ s story was published, brought forth divergent
opinions, and “ The Assignation ” presents an imaginative conclusion to the Byronic
character ’ s life that is far more sensational than Lord Byron ’ s inglorious death. This
story may also be read as a drunkard ’ s narrative, where the suspenseful events, the
strange actions of the characters, and the extravagant language may reasonably hint
at an intoxicated narrator. A like technique enriches the characterization of Montresor
in “ The Cask of Amontillado. ” Fortunato may not be the sole drunkard in that story.
III
“ Tales of the Folio Club ” fi nding no publisher, Poe dismantled the book, circulated
individual tales in literary periodicals and annuals, and thereby created puzzlement
for many readers. Some sensed that there were comic aspects underlying certain
stories, e.g., “ Loss of Breath, ” “ Bon - Bon ” ; others singled out the “ German ” elements
for censure. Such divergences continue among Poe scholars even today. Nevertheless,
Poe ’ s literary hoaxes have gained widespread recognition of their superb artistry. 9 Just
as signifi cant, Poe divined that he could create stories in which the eerie situations,
bizarre characters and hyperbolic language emanate from the most genuine source of
terror, the human mind, instead of from drunken, gluttonous characters spouting
what may seem to be nonsensical dialogue. Consequently, his later stories often evince
a greater seriousness than many of the earlier stories do, albeit some of these later
pieces are not without enhancing comic touches.
At the same time as Poe ’ s stories began to shift from obvious comedy to greater
psychological depth, Poe the critic began to offer principles for effective short fi ction.
Earlier, he stated that a long poem is a contradiction in terms. Subsequently, and in
line with his emphasis on unifi ed effect or impression ’ s being essential to genuine
literary art – what a reader can comprehend within a single sitting, to last no longer
than an hour - and - a - half – he contended that the short story often allowed greater
opportunities than a novel (or even a poem) allowed for creating great literature.
Simply stated, engagement with a novel could not be completed within Poe ’ s ideal
time span, and the interruptions between readings negated unity of effect.
Poe ’ s concept of the short story, or “ tale, ” as he preferred (as superior to the novel),
was early articulated in his review of Dickens
’ s Watkins Tottle and other Sketches
( Southern Literary Messenger June 1836, a volume of reprinted short pieces; E & R 205).
In three reviews of Hawthorne
’
s short fi ction, respectively in
Graham ’ s Magazine
(April 1842; E & R 568 – 9), Graham ’ s Magazine (May 1842; E & R : 569 – 76) and Godey ’ s Lady ’ s Book
(November 1847;
E & R
577
–
88), Poe most succinctly set forth his
Poe and the Short Story
27
commendation of the short story as a form which at times manifests “ superiority over
the poem ” ( E & R 568) – high praise indeed from Poe. So his theories of poetry and
fi ction were almost indistinguishable. He also commented that, implicitly, what
distinguishes creative from informational writing are the undercurrents of suggestion
or meaning (i.e., symbolic art) in the forme
r. He deplored too obvious allegory in
literature, however, and so his own stories, e.g., “ The Fall of the House of Usher ” or
“ The Masque of the Red Death, ” embody more subtle allegorical features. As for his
tales of terror in general, he responded to critics who objected to this type of fi ction
in the “ Preface ” to Tales of the Grotesque and Arabesque : “ If in many of my productions
terror has been the thesis, I maintain that terror is not of Germany but of the soul,
– that I have deduced this terror only from its legitimate sources, and urged it only
to its legitimate results ” ( CW 2. 473).
One might understandably suspect that Poe ’ s advocacy of the lyric poem and the
short story as the greatest forms of literary art dovetailed naturally with the literary
genres in which he excelled. Conversely, one may justly argue that Poe commanded
a sound understanding of psychology, thus realizing the brevity or fragility in the
average human attention span. So much, then, for Poe the hack writer that his detrac-
tors propose. We should also recall that although he championed brevity in creative
writing, Poe could sensibly evaluate the merits and demerits in longer works, as his
critiques of many novels attest. In most of these evaluations he does not bear down
heavily on length qua length, for example, in his review of Dickens ’ s Barnaby Rudge
or in the critiques of novels by Edward Bulwer - Lytton. A notable exception, in which
Poe ’ s opinion of length is severe, appears in the review of Theodore Sedgwick Fay ’ s
tedious novel, Norman Leslie (1835). Poe ’ s antipathy toward the repetitions in this
book is evident, not to mention what could be considered Fay ’ s own narrow vocabu-
lary. Overall, Poe ’ s concept of plot (i.e., unity) reveals Aristotelian infl uence (Jacobs
250 – 2).
IV
Although unity of effect is evident throughout Poe ’ s seventy - plus stories, we might
attend in greater detail to one that most emphatically displays his theories in practice,
namely, “ The Fall of the House of Usher. ” This story has long and deservedly been
recognized as one of Poe ’ s very greatest achievements in short - story writing, despite
his own reiterated championing of “ Ligeia ” as his best fi ction. At the level of surface
A Companion to the American Short Story Page 7
