by Bloomsbury
There are 47 individual Wildlife Trusts covering the whole of the UK and the Isle of Man and Alderney. Together The Wildlife Trusts are the largest UK voluntary organization dedicated to protecting wildlife and wild places everywhere – at land and sea. They are supported by 800,000 members, 150,000 of whom belong to their junior branch, Wildlife Watch. Every year The Wildlife Trusts work with thousands of schools, and their nature reserves and visitor centres receive millions of visitors.
The Wildlife Trusts work in partnership with hundreds of landowners and businesses in the UK. Building on their existing network of 2,250 nature reserves, The Wildlife Trusts’ recovery plan for the UK’s wildlife and fragmented habitats, known as A Living Landscape, is being achieved through restoring, recreating and reconnecting large areas of wildlife habitat.
The Wildlife Trusts also have a vision for the UK’s seas and sea life – Living Seas, in which wildlife thrives from the depths of the oceans to the coastal shallows. In Living Seas, wildlife and habitats are recovering, the natural environment is adapting well to a changing climate, and people are inspired by marine wildlife and value the sea for the many ways in which it supports our quality of life. As well as protecting wildlife, these projects help to safeguard the ecosystems we depend on for services like clean air and water.
All 47 Wildlife Trusts are members of the Royal Society of Wildlife Trusts (Registered charity number 207238). To find your local Wildlife Trust visit wildlifetrusts.org
Contents
Introduction
Boletes
Milkcaps
Russulas
Amanitas
Waxcaps
Woodwaxes
Honey Fungi
Knights
Funnels
Deceivers
Toughshanks
Bonnets
Tricholoma Allies
Pinkgills
Shields
Rosegills
Webcaps
Rustgills
Poison Pies
Fibrecaps
Fieldcaps
Tufts & Woodtufts
Scalycaps
Roundheads
Psilocybe
Mottlegills
Parasols
Powdercaps
Mushrooms
Inkcaps
Weeping Widow
Oysters
Oysterlings
Cockleshells
Spikes
Chanterelles
False Chanterelle
Bracket Fungi
Clubs & Corals
Cauliflower Fungus
Stinkhorns
Earthstars
Puffballs
Earthballs
Jelly Fungi
Earthfans
Toothed Fungi
Jellydiscs
Saddles
Cups
Morels
Woodwarts
Candlesnuffs
Underground Fungi
Introduction
Several thousand species of fungi occur in Europe, including Britain and Ireland. Many are microscopic, and although they are important to agriculturists due to the damage they can cause to crops, they are not considered in this book.
The species included in this book are mainly those that can be readily recognized because they have some distinguishing character in terms of appearance, smell or taste. They are arranged in family groups. Diameter measurements are given for caps and fruit bodies, height measurements for stems. Although some fungi are described as associating with specific trees, there are exceptions when the host tree may be of a different species from that stated. However, relatively few species grow on both deciduous and coniferous trees.
A far greater number of fungi fruit in the autumn than in the spring. Most may be found in May to October in northern areas, and a month later in southern areas; in most years the peak months are August to September and September to October respectively. In a mild winter some species continue fruiting right through into spring.
What Are Fungi?
Fungi lack the pigment chlorophyll, which is contained in green plants, so are unable to make use of the sun’s energy to build up the carbohydrates from which a plant is formed. Instead, like animals, they get their energy through the breakdown of organic matter. In addition, the hard parts of fungi are chemically closer to the chitin that forms the casing of insects, than to lignin, which forms the hard parts of plants. These extraordinary organisms are grouped in the fungi kingdom, which is separate from plants, animals and bacteria.
A mushroom or toadstool is only the fruit body or reproductive part of an extensive network of very fine threads that branch, join and weave below the surface of the ground, breaking down decaying material for sustenance. In the same way, the bracket fungus that grows on a tree is the fruit of a body of fine threads that penetrate the substance of the wood. This network is known as the mycelium and is common to all fungi. The individual threads, or hyphae, are invisible to the naked eye, but often a number cluster together to form visible threads about the thickness of sewing cotton. Certain fungi form even thicker black threads like bootlaces, known as rhizomorphs, which may be seen under the loose bark of dead trees.
The mycelium is perennial and certainly persists in the soil for decades, probably for centuries and possibly for millennia. It plays a major part in the rotting down of autumnal leaves, which would quickly be metres deep without this process of decomposition.
Not all fungi limit themselves to the breakdown of leaves, however. Many send their hyphae down to the roots of trees and form a network in the outer layers of the finer roots. Here a mutual interchange of material, known as mycorrhizal symbiosis, occurs to the benefit of both fungus and tree, and without which the tree would not prosper. It is believed that the fungal hyphae are able to take up and transfer to the tree minerals such as phosphates, and to receive from the tree compounds that they are unable to synthesize, such as sugars. Foresters regard the fungal element in the soil as very important.
Identifying Fungi
Nature has explored every avenue of shape, texture and colour in fungal fruit bodies, ranging from cups to finger-like projections, caps on stalks to irregular potato-like lumps buried in the ground, soft jellies to brackets too hard to be cut with a knife, and brilliant red to turquoise. However, the typical mushroom fruit body consists of a cap and stem.
Cap
The cap is generally round. Beneath it are the spore-bearing surfaces, which may be either flat vertical plates known as gills, or tubes that end in openings known as pores. Gills may run down the stem (decurrent), be free of the stem (free), or be attached to it along their entire length (adnate) or by a short decurrent tooth or notch (sinuate), depending on the genus.
Stem
The stem is usually attached to the centre of the cap, but may also be attached at the edge. It may have a firm or fragile ring. This is formed from a membrane (the partial veil) that protects the developing gills of the young mushroom and breaks away from the edge of the cap as it opens. The stem base may be contained in a bag known as the volva, which is the remains of the sheath (the universal veil) that completely surrounds both cap and stem as the fruit body grows, rupturing as the mushroom rises from the ground. Both veils may or may not be present. It is essential to recognize them if the fungus is to be identified correctly. The volva is a characteristic of some of the most deadly poisonous fungi – the Amanitas.
Tree Associations
It is helpful to note which trees are in the vicinity of fungi that are being identified, because some are quite specific in their associations. It is also useful to ascertain if a fungus is growing on the ground or on wood, which may not be very obvious if the wood is buried.
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br /> Fungi Divisions
All fungi have the same basic structure of hyphae and reproduce by means of spores, but the way in which they arrange their spores separates them into two main phyla: Basidiomycota and Ascomycota.
Basidiomycetes allow their spores to fall into the passing air currents, so they have to elevate their fruit bodies at least a short way above the ground. The spores are formed on the stalks of cells known as basidia, and there are usually four to a cell. The Basidiomycota includes boletes, mushrooms, chanterelles, bracket fungi, stinkhorns, earthstars, puffballs, jelly fungi, smuts, bunts and rusts.
Ascomycetes form their spores in tubes like gun barrels, known as asci, which usually point upwards. When ripe, the spores are forcibly ejected for several millimetres, which is enough to get them airborne. In some species small changes in humidity or air pressure are enough to initiate this release and, as many asci discharge at the same time, the spores appear as a little puff of smoke. The largest phylum of fungi, the Ascomycota includes morels, cup fungi, truffles, brewer’s yeast and baker’s yeast.
Perhaps fortunately, very few fungal spores ever germinate, or at least few develop into further organisms. For this reason they are released in enormous numbers, an average mushroom producing 10 to 20 thousand million. The Giant Puffball has been calculated to produce more than seven billion spores from a single fruit body of average size.
Conservation of Fungi
There has been a marked decline in a number of fungi in continental Europe through collecting for eating, pollution, loss of habitat and trampling. In Britain there has been little commercial collecting, and no recent declines are attributable to it. However, reduction in numbers of British species that has been noted has been due to destruction of habitat through the use of inorganic fertilizers on pasture land, conversion of heathland and deciduous woodland to conifer plantations, and the removal of dead wood for fuel.
POISONOUS FUNGI
Edible fungi are not generally identified in this book, because this is a field guide rather than a guide to the edibility of fungi. It is essential that anyone collecting mushrooms is able to identify absolutely those species that are edible. If there is any doubt about a particular specimen, an expert opinion should be sought. Serious cases of poisoning – up to death – have occurred through the failure to recognize all the distinguishing features of a species, and through confusion between similar-looking poisonous and non-poisonous species.
Yellow- Cracked Bolete
Boletus subtomentosus
SIZE AND DESCRIPTION
Cap to 10cm; stem to 8cm. Similar to B. cisalpinus (opposite). Cap mid- to cigar-brown, covered initially with yellowish velvety down that wears off, allowing yellow cracks to appear. Pores dirty lemon-yellow, blueing slightly on bruising. Flesh creamy to yellow, not changing when damaged. Stem mainly brown with a brick-red base, but creamy in upper part.
HABITAT
Common in mixed deciduous woodland, occurring in small groups. Widespread in Europe.
SEASON
Summer to late autumn.
Bolete Species
Boletus cisalpinus
SIZE AND DESCRIPTION
Cap to 11cm; stem to 8cm. Cap shades of hazel-brown, initially with a slightly velvety texture that soon wears off, leaving it smooth and cracking. Pores dirty yellow, bruising blue or green. Flesh medium thickness, cream or straw, with a thin reddish layer immediately under the cuticle; it often turns pink where it is damaged by slugs. Stem usually flushed red along the entire length except for the very top, which is yellowish.
HABITAT
Common in deciduous woodland, particularly with oaks.
SEASON
Midsummer to late autumn.
Summer Bolete
Boletus reticulatus
SIZE AND DESCRIPTION
Cap to 12cm; stem to 15cm. Cap cinnamon-brown; bun shaped, with a suede-like texture that becomes dry and tends to crack. Pores very small, round, and white tending to olive-green. Flesh white and firm. Stem swollen and bulbous, pale brown and completely covered with a white network or reticulation.
HABITAT
Grows singly or in small groups under deciduous and coniferous trees, but particularly associated with oaks and beeches. Uncommon but widespread in Europe.
SEASON
Early summer to autumn.
Cep
Boletus edulis
SIZE AND DESCRIPTION
Cap to 25cm; stem to 15cm. Large and thick fleshed. Cap brown, typically with a pale margin; rounded when young, then flattened. Pores white, becoming creamy-grey, then yellow. Flesh white and pleasant smelling. Stem pale grey with a white net, particularly at the top. One of the best edible species.
HABITAT
Found in woodland of all types, particularly with beeches and oaks, growing in small groups. Widespread in Europe, although rarer in north and declining.
SEASON
Early summer to autumn.
Bay Bolete
Boletus badius
SIZE AND DESCRIPTION
Cap to 14cm; stem to 10cm. Cap shades of dark brown, smooth and shiny. Pores large, angular and lemon-yellow, bruising bluish-green. Flesh pale yellowish turning pale blue-green where cut. Stem stout and paler than cap.
HABITAT
Grows in small groups, most frequently with conifers, but also with beeches. Common in Europe, with an uneven distribution.
SEASON
Midsummer to autumn.
Old Man of the Woods
Strobilomyces strobilaceus
SIZE AND DESCRIPTION
Cap to 15cm; stem to 12cm. Cap convex, and covered and overhung with thick ragged scales that are initially white, then black interspersed with grey. Flesh soft and white, turning red, then dark brown when cut. Stem concolorous with cap, scaly and paler above rough sheathing ring.
HABITAT
Grows in small scattered groups on soil in deciduous woodland, and occasionally coniferous woodland. Unevenly distributed in Europe and rare in Britain.
SEASON
Late summer to autumn.
Slippery Jack
Suillus luteus
SIZE AND DESCRIPTION
Cap to 10cm; stem to 10cm. Cap chestnut-brown paling to sepia at the edge, covered with slippery gluten in wet weather. Pores and tubes dirty yellowish and small. Flesh pale, almost white, greying in the stem base. Stem whitish at the base, yellower nearer the top, with a large and floppy ring that is initially pale but darkens almost to the cap colour.
HABITAT
Occurs in small groups in coniferous woodland, particularly with Scots Pine. Common and widespread in Europe.
SEASON
Midsummer to autumn.
Shallow-pored Bolete
Suillus bovinus
SIZE AND DESCRIPTION
Cap to 10cm; stem to 6cm. Cap pale cinnamon-brown with a persistently paler margin, and covered with slippery gluten. Pores pale grey to cinnamon-brown; large, irregular and slightly decurrent. Flesh slightly yellowish, becoming clay-pink on exposure; darker in the stem. Stem parallel, similar in colour to the cap and usually somewhat short.
HABITAT
Grows in small groups under two-needled pines, particularly Scots Pine. Widespread throughout Europe.
SEASON
Midsummer to autumn.
Grey Larch Bolete
Suillus viscidus
SIZE AND DESCRIPTION
Cap to 10cm; stem to 9cm. Cap pale buff with olive-grey blotches; convex, with a slimy surface layer. Pores large, angular and grey, bruising greenish. Flesh thick, soft and whitish, turning faintly blue where cut. Stem cylindrical, pale straw above the ring and greyish below.
HABITAT
Grows solely in association with larches, occurring in small groups. Rare in Britain but more common in continental Europe.
SEASON
Early summer to autumn.
Larch Bolete
Suillus grevillei
SIZE AND DESCR
IPTION
Cap to 10cm; stem to 11cm. Cap golden-yellow to rusty-orange; convex, with a slimy surface layer. Pores small and angular, lemon-yellow bruising reddish-brown. Flesh thick, soft and pale yellow. Stem brownish-yellow below a slimy membranous white ring, yellow above it.
HABITAT
Grows only in association with larches, occurring in small groups. Common and widespread in Europe, including Britain.
SEASON
Midsummer to autumn.
Brown Birch Bolete
Leccinum scabrum
SIZE AND DESCRIPTION
Cap to 15cm; stem to 10cm. Usually large, but varies greatly in size. Cap snuff-brown and rounded; it feels as though it is filled with cotton wool. Pores off-white. Flesh white, unchanging when cut. Stem tall and white, covered with blackish scales.
HABITAT
Occurs in birch woods in scattered groups, often in large numbers. Widespread in Europe with an uneven distribution.
SEASON
Late summer to autumn.
Orange Birch Bolete
Leccinum versipelle
SIZE AND DESCRIPTION
Cap to 20cm; stem to 20cm. Frequently large bolete. Cap orange, dry and much firmer to the touch than that of Brown Birch Bolete (opposite). Cap cuticle often forms an overhanging skirt. Pores small and greyish. Flesh white, rapidly darkening to blue-green when cut, and soon becoming nearly black in both the stem and cap. Stem white covered with brownish-black scales, bruising black.
HABITAT
Associated with birches, growing in scattered groups. Widespread and unevenly distributed in Europe.
SEASON
Summer to autumn.
Granulated Bolete
Suillus granulatus
SIZE AND DESCRIPTION
Cap to 9cm; stem to 8cm. Cap yellowish to reddish-brown; convex, then flattened as it expands; contains a sticky surface layer that is easily removed. Pores small, round and pale lemon-yellow, releasing droplets of milky fluid that darkens on drying. Flesh thick and pale yellow. Stem cylindrical, solid, and cream or pale yellow, with white or yellowish granules developing near the apex.
