by Lucy Crehan
241 Hanushek E, Woßmann L. Does educational tracking affect performance and inequality? Differences-In-Differences Evidence Across Countries. Economic Journal 2006;116:63–76.
Woessmann L. International Evidence on School Tracking: A Review. CESifo DICE Report – Journal for Institutional Comparisons 2009;7(1):26–34.
Horn, D. Age of selection counts: A cross-country comparison of educational institutions. Arbeitspapiere – Mannheimer Zentrum für Europäische Sozialforschung; 107. Available from: http://www.mzes.uni-mannheim.de/publications/wp/wp-107.pdf; 2008.
Duru-Bellat M, Suchaut B. Organisation and context, efficiency and equity of educational systems: what PISA tells us. European Educational Research Journal 2005;4(3):181–94.
242 Jakubowski M, Patrinos HA, Porta EE, Wisniewski J. The Impact of the 1999 Education Reform in Poland. Policy Research Working Paper 5263. Human Development Network Education, 2010.
243 Carlgren I. The Swedish comprehensive school—lost in transition? Zeitschrift für Erziehungswissenschaft 2009;12(4):633–49.
244 Although it was a qualified teacher fulfilling this role in all of the countries I went to, there is some evidence that academic and non-academic gains can be made using well-educated, committed tutors who do not necessarily have formal teacher training. E.g. Cook et al (2014), The (Surprising) Efficacy of Academic and Behavioral Intervention with Disadvantaged Youth: Results from a Randomized Experiment in Chicago, NBER Working Paper No. 19862.
245 Hill HC, Rowan B, Ball DL. Effects of Teachers’ Mathematical Knowledge for Teaching on Student Achievement. American Educational Research Journal 2005;42(2):371-406.
Sadler PM, Sonnert G, Coyle HP, Cook-Smith N, Miller JL. The influence of teachers’ knowledge on student learning in middle school physical science classrooms. American Educational Research Journal 2013;50(5):1020–49.
Deans for Impact (2015). The Science of Learning, Austin, TX: Deans for Impact, available at: www.deansforimpact.org/pdfs/The_Science_of_Learning.pdf
246 Pomerance L, Greenberg J, Walsh K. Learning about learning: What Every New Teacher Needs to Know. Washington, DC: The National Council of Teacher Quality, 2016.
247 Coe R, Aloisi C, Higgins S, Elliot Major L. What Makes Great Teaching? Review of the Underpinning Research. Durham: Centre for Evaluation and Monitoring/The Sutton Trust, 2014.
248 I have drawn on five reviews of what makes effective/great teaching and learning –
Ko J, Sammons P. Effective Teaching: A Review of Research and Evidence. Reading: CfBT Education Trust, 2013.
Coe R, Aloisi C, Higgins S, Elliot Major L. What Makes Great Teaching? Review of the Underpinning Research. Durham:Centre for Evaluation and Monitoring/The Sutton Trust, 2014.
Deans for Impact (2015). The Science of Learning, Austin, TX: Deans for Impact. Available at: www.deansforimpact.org/pdfs/The_Science_of_Learning.pdf
Pashler H, Bain PM, Bottge BA, et al. Organizing Instruction and Study to Improve Student Learning. IES Practice Guide NCER 2007-2004. Washington, DC: National Center for Education Research, 2007.
Hattie J. (2008).
249 Byron K, Khazanchi S, Nazarian D. The relationship between stressors and creativity: a meta-analysis examining competing theoretical models. Journal of Applied Psychology 2010;95(1):201.
250 Mourshed M, Chijioke C, Barber M. How the World’s Most Improved Systems Keep Getting Better. New York: McKinsey & Co, 2010:70.
251 Diamond J, Spillane J. High-stakes accountability in urban elementary schools: challenging or reproducing inequality? The Teachers College Record 2004;106(6):1145–76.
252 Neal D, Schanzenback DW. Left behind by design: proficiency counts and test-based accountability. The Review of Economics and Statistics 2010;92(2):263–83.
253 Jacob B. Accountability, incentives and behavior: the impact of high-stakes testing in Chicago public schools. Journal of Public Economics 2005;89(5–6):761–96.
Jennings J. Below the bubble: educational triage and the Texas accountability system. American Educational Research Journal 2005;42(2):231–68.
254 Jacob BA, Levitt SD. Rotten Apples: An Investigation of the Prevalence and Predictors of Teacher Cheating (No. w9413). Cambridge, MA: National Bureau of Economic Research, 2003.
255 Shanghai and Singapore have not yet delayed the selection of different
children into different schools (although Shanghai is trying) so these systems are high-performing but not yet equitable.
256 Jerrim J, Vignoles A. The Causal Effect of East Asian ‘Mastery’ Teaching Methods on English Children’s Mathematics Skills (No. 15-05). Department of Quantitative Social Science-UCL Institute of Education. London: University College London, 2015.
257 Zeehandelaar D, Northern AM. What Parents Want: Education Preferences and Trade-offs: A National Survey of K-12 Parents. Washington DC: Thomas B. Fordham Institute, 2013.
258 HSBC. The Value of Education: Learning for Life. Available at: www.google.com/search?client=safari&rls=en&q=The+Value+of+Education:+Learning+for+Life%E2%80%99&ie=UTF-8&oe=UTF-8&gfe_rd=cr&ei=u65aV6X1E-Hc8geTho3wCA; 2015; accessed at: 6th June 2016.
259 Bol T, Van de Werfhorst HG. Educational systems and the trade-off between labor market allocation and equality of educational opportunity. Comparative Education Review 2013;57(2):285–308.
260 Bransford JD, Brown AL, Cocking RR. How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School. Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 2000.
261 Pellegrino JW, Hilton ML. Education for Life and Work: Developing Transferable Knowledge and Skills in the 21st Century. Washington, DC: National Academies Press, 2012.
262 Dignath C, Buettner G, Langfeldt HP. How can primary school students learn self-regulated learning strategies most effectively? A meta-analysis on self-regulation training programmes. Educational Research Review 2008;3(2):101–29.
263 Scott G, Leritz LE, Mumford MD. The effectiveness of creativity training: A quantitative review. Creativity Research Journal 2004;16(4):361–88.
264 Kirschner PA, Sweller J, Clark RE. Why minimal guidance during instruction does not work: An analysis of the failure of constructivist, discovery, problem-based, experiential, and inquiry-based teaching. Educational Psychologist 2006;41(2):75–86.
Glossary
Autonomous motivation When a person fully endorses a be-haviour and experiences volition and choice.
Differentiation A change in teacher behaviour to cater for students with different needs.
Equality In this context, this means the spread of student/school results being narrow.
Equity/equitable In this context, this refers to the extent to which students’ results depend on their parental background. Equitable would mean there was no relationship.
External (controlled) motivation When a person feels coerced or seduced into behaving, with the experience of pressure and obligation.
Extrinsic motivation Motivation that comes from external sources, such as the pursuit of a reward or the avoidance of punishment.
Fixed mindset The belief that you only have a certain amount of ability/intelligence/skill, and that there is nothing you can do to change this.
Gaman Japanese term meaning ‘enduring the seemingly unbearable with patience and dignity’.
Growth mindset The belief that you can improve your abilities or level of intelligence through hard work and training.
Guanxi Chinese term meaning ‘connection’ which refers to a network of mutually-beneficial relationships that can help you in your personal life or in business.
Han A Japanese term meaning ‘group’, used to refer to the small groups students are put into at school.
Hukou A record of household registration in China. This affects which public services one is entitled to in other parts of the country.
Intrinsic motivation Acting because the action is inherently interesting or enjoyable.
Juku In Japan, a private school or college attended in addition to an ordinary educational institution.
&n
bsp; Lesson study A professional development practice in which teachers plan a lesson together, observe how effectively the children learn in the lesson, and discuss possible changes on the basis of this.
Pedagogy (pedagogical) The method and practice of teaching (relating to teaching).
Problem solving (As defined by the OECD) Engaging in cognitive processing to understand and resolve problem situations in which a method of solution is not immediately obvious.
Relatedness The extent of one’s positive relationships with others.
‘Resilient’ students (As defined by the OECD) Resilient students come from the bottom quarter of the distribution of socio-economic background in their country and score in the top quarter among students from all countries with similar socioeconomic background.
Setting Separating students into different classes for different subjects on the basis of exam scores or perceived ability.
Social capital The strengths of the relationships a person has with others, and the value arising from those relationships.
Socio-economic background A family’s economic and social position in relation to others, based on income, education, and occupation. References to measurements of this are based on the PISA index of social, cultural and economic status.
Working memory The cognitive structure in which processing occurs (where you process things that you are consciously thinking about). Limited in capacity.
yutori kyõiku Japanese term meaning ‘relaxed education’. This was the name of an approach taken by the government to make schooling more relaxed in response to fears that children were too stressed.
Acknowledgements
I would not have had the confidence to travel around the world staying with strangers, nor to write this book, were it not for the love and support of my parents, Jill and Dominic Crehan. To them, and the rest of my wonderful family, I owe a huge debt of gratitude that I will never be able to repay.
The teachers I stayed with quickly became my friends, and it is these open-minded educators that really made this trip, and this book, possible. One in particular took a chance on me right at the start, and welcomed me to her home, her school, and her Zumba classes on the basis of a single Skype conversation; Reeta, you made this happen.
Other notable teachers and students who generously leant me their time and their hospitality (and on two occasions even took me to hospital) include Sini, Maarit, Heli, Emma, Ilpo, Marilyn, Loree, Eric, Deirdre, Nadine, Trevor, Jacob, Shaun, Heidi, Anne, Berinder, Bulpreet, Monica, David, Alan, Marcus, Glynis, Isao, Anna, Aya, Ellie, Sayaka, Ricky, Sunny, Wendy, Michelle, Jenny, Angela, Rony, Raye, and Nancy. You are all welcome to come and stay with us in Bath whenever you like!
Once I’d had the idea that I might write a book, the stars aligned to help me make that happen. Their names are Georgia Odd, Jimmy Leach, Mathew Clayton, Isobel Kieran, DeAndra Lupu, Craig Adams, Lauren Fulbright and Amy Winchester – the team at Unbound. I had no idea how much hard work and creative genius goes into making a book that has little to do with the author herself. I’d like to thank them in particular for their guidance and their patience with me as a first-timer. I also quite literally could not have done this without the wonderful patrons who paid for my book before it even existed – thank you.
The ideas in this book went through several iterations, and reached their final form with the help of the friends and family who looked through it: Mark O’Brien, Tessa Roberts, Dom Weinberg, Kiran Gill, Harry Fletcher-Wood, Andrew Sabisky and Mum and Dad. I was also honoured to have the renowned Sir Michael Barber, Professor Dylan Wiliam and Sir Clive Woodward look through the book and offer their generous endorsements.
One person stands out for the time and thought they have dedicated to helping me develop my ideas. Tim Oates has become my unofficial mentor during the past year, and has offered me invaluable critique and public support. His organisation, Cambridge Assessment, also kindly sponsored my flights to Shanghai. Tim gave me confidence that my ideas could be taken seriously.
Finally, I would like to thank my fiancé Mark for his unswerving emotional support during the ups and downs of the writing process. My happiness at reaching this point is doubled by my sharing it with him.
Supporters
Unbound is a new kind of publishing house. Our books are funded directly by readers. This was a very popular idea during the late eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Now we have revived it for the internet age. It allows authors to write the books they really want to write and readers to support the writing they would most like to see published.
The names listed below are of readers who have pledged their support and made this book happen. If you’d like to join them, visit: www.unbound.com.
Stephen Adcock
Seliat Agboola
Valeria Agostini
Imad Ahmed
Beth Allard
Ian Armitage
Ed Arthur
Stephen & Regina Ash
Josie Azoff
Maya Bahoshy
Sarah Bailey
Karen Baines
Peter Batty
Jen Baxter
Wendy Baxter
Oliver Beach
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Roy Blatchford
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Neil Brading
Kelly Bristow
Beckie Brown
David Bryan
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Paul Burgess
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David Buxton
Thomas Byrne
Tom Campion
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Xander Cansell
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Anne Clark
Matthew Clark
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Victoria Cockram
Michael Coleman
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Dominic Crehan
Emily Crehan
Jill Crehan
Oscar Crehan
Mike Crowhurst
Jesse Crozier
Charlie Crutchley
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Jonathan Dando
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Neil Davies
Tomos Davies
Stacey Davies-Boyle
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Michelle Day
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Vincent Della Puppa
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David Didau
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Richard Donnelly
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Chimé Metok Dorjee
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Kimberly Douglas
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Joshua Eisenthal
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Peter Ellis
T Ellis
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Gemma Escott
Daniel Ethier
David Evans
Joan and Kingston Evans
Lauren Evetts
Phillip Evitt
Nathan Ewin
Lee Faith
Simon Faulkner
Alex Fiennes
Sally Fincher
Nicola Fleming<
br />
Nik Fleming
Harry Fletcher-Wood
Alex Fontanelli
Rowan Fookes
Mandy Forbes
Clare Forrester
Lucinda Foulkes-Arnold
Sarah Freck
Hilary Gallo
Ben Gibbs
Daniele Gibney
Tom Gibson
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Tarjinder Gill
Jamie Godd
Ada Gokay
Ashley Gordon
Jonathan Gower
Clarissa Grandi
Helen Gregory
Victoria Greybrook
Virginia Lynn Grimaldi
Flora Grimston
Liz Gunstone
Sinead Harold
John Hart
Ellie Haworth
Gemma Hay
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Mark Healy
Emily Higgs
Eileen Hinds
Philip Holdaway
Guy Holloway
Tom Holroyd
Matthew Hood
Verity Howorth
Robin Humphreys
Ray Hunter
Aliyah Hussein
Edison Huynh
Rebecca Isaacs
Bodil Isaksen
Daniel Jackson
Ceri James
Josh James
C Jenkinson
Rhodri Jervis
Christine Jolliffe
Russell Jones
Jasmeen Kanwal
Julia Karmo
Augusta Kaufmann
Jan Keeling
Alex Kelly
Hilary Kemp
Hugo Kerr
Kate Kettle
Laura Kettle
Naureen Khalid
Dan Kieran
Darren King
Georgina Klein
Doron Klemer
Christine Knight
Doreen Knight
Simon Knight
