History of Florence and of the Affairs of Italy

by Niccolo Machiavelli

from which, having become refreshed, they might again make head

  against the enemy, they provided a large car, drawn by two oxen,

  covered with red cloth, upon which was an ensign of white and red.

  When they intended to assemble the army, this car was brought into the

  New Market, and delivered with pomp to the heads of the people. To

  give solemnity to their enterprises, they had a bell called

  Martinella, which was rung during a whole month before the forces left

  the city, in order that the enemy might have time to provide for his

  defense; so great was the virtue then existing among men, and with so

  much generosity of mind were they governed, that as it is now

  considered a brave and prudent act to assail an unprovided enemy, in

  those days it would have been thought disgraceful, and productive only

  of a fallacious advantage. This bell was also taken with the army, and

  served to regulate the keeping and relief of guard, and other matters

  necessary in the practice of war.

  With these ordinations, civil and military, the Florentines

  established their liberty. Nor is it possible to imagine the power and

  authority Florence in a short time acquired. She became not only the

  head of Tuscany, but was enumerated among the first cities of Italy,

  and would have attained greatness of the most exalted kind, had she

  not been afflicted with the continual divisions of her citizens. They

  remained under the this government ten years, during which time they

  compelled the people of Pistoria, Arezzo, and Sienna, to enter into

  league with them; and returning with the army from Sienna, they took

  Volterra, destroyed some castles, and led the inhabitants to Florence.

  All these enterprises were effected by the advice of the Guelphs, who

  were much more powerful than the Ghibellines, for the latter were

  hated by the people as well on account of their haughty bearing while

  in power, during the time of Frederick, as because the church party

  was in more favor than that of the emperor; for with the aid of the

  church they hoped to preserve their liberty, but, with the emperor,

  they were apprehensive of losing it.

  The Ghibellines, in the meantime, finding themselves divested of

  authority, could not rest, but watched for an occasion of repossessing

  the government; and they thought the favorable moment come, when they

  found that Manfred, son of Frederick, had made himself sovereign of

  Naples, and reduced the power of the church. They, therefore, secretly

  communicated with him, to resume the management of the state, but

  could not prevent their proceedings from coming to the knowledge of

  the Anziani, who immediately summoned the Uberti to appear before

  them; but instead of obeying, they took arms and fortified themselves

  in their houses. The people, enraged at this, armed themselves, and

  with the assistance of the Guelphs, compelled them to quit the city,

  and, with the whole Ghibelline party, withdraw to Sienna. They then

  asked assistance of Manfred king of Naples, and by the able conduct of

  Farinata degli Uberti, the Guelphs were routed by the king's forces

  upon the river Arbia, with so great slaughter, that those who escaped,

  thinking Florence lost, did not return thither, but sought refuge at

  Lucca.

  Manfred sent the Count Giordano, a man of considerable reputation in

  arms, to command his forces. He after the victory, went with the

  Ghibellines to Florence, and reduced the city entirely to the king's

  authority, annulling the magistracies and every other institution that

  retained any appearance of freedom. This injury, committed with little

  prudence, excited the ardent animosity of the people, and their enmity

  against the Ghibellines, whose ruin it eventually caused, was

  increased to the highest pitch. The necessities of the kingdom

  compelling the Count Giordano to return to Naples, he left at Florence

  as regal vicar the Count Guido Novallo, lord of Casentino, who called

  a council of Ghibellines at Empoli. There it was concluded, with only

  one dissenting voice, that in order to preserve their power in

  Tuscany, it would be necessary to destroy Florence, as the only means

  of compelling the Guelphs to withdraw their support from the party of

  the church. To this so cruel a sentence, given against such a noble

  city, there was not a citizen who offered any opposition, except

  Farinata degli Uberti, who openly defended her, saying he had not

  encountered so many dangers and difficulties, but in the hope of

  returning to his country; that he still wished for what he had so

  earnestly sought, nor would he refuse the blessing which fortune now

  presented, even though by using it, he were to become as much an enemy

  of those who thought otherwise, as he had been of the Guelphs; and

  that no one need be afraid the city would occasion the ruin of their

  country, for he hoped that the valor which had expelled the Guelphs,

  would be sufficient to defend her. Farinata was a man of undaunted

  resolution, and excelled greatly in military affairs: being the head

  of the Ghibelline party, and in high estimation with Manfred, his

  authority put a stop to the discussion, and induced the rest to think

  of some other means of preserving their power.

  The Lucchese being threatened with the anger of the count, for

  affording refuge to the Guelphs after the battle of the Arbia, could

  allow them to remain no longer; so leaving Lucca, they went to

  Bologna, from whence they were called by the Guelphs of Parma against

  the Ghibellines of that city, where, having overcome the enemy, the

  possessions of the latter were assigned to them; so that having

  increased in honors and riches, and learning that Pope Clement had

  invited Charles of Anjou to take the kingdom from Manfred, they sent

  ambassadors to the pope to offer him their services. His holiness not

  only received them as friends, but gave them a standard upon which his

  insignia were wrought. It was ever after borne by the Guelphs in

  battle, and is still used at Florence. Charles having taken the

  kingdom from Manfred, and slain him, to which success the Guelphs of

  Florence had contributed, their party became more powerful, and that

  of the Ghibellines proportionately weaker. In consequence of this,

  those who with Count Novello governed the city, thought it would be

  advisable to attach to themselves, with some concession, the people

  whom they had previously aggravated with every species of injury; but

  these remedies which, if applied before the necessity came would have

  been beneficial, being offered when they were no longer considered

  favors, not only failed of producing any beneficial results to the

  donors, but hastened their ruin. Thinking, however, to win them to

  their interests, they restored some of the honors of which they had

  deprived them. They elected thirty-six citizens from the higher rank

  of the people, to whom, with two cavaliers, knights or gentlemen,

  brought from Bologna, the reformation of the government of the city

  was confided. As soon as they met, they classed the whole of the

  people according
to their arts or trades, and over each art appointed

  a magistrate, whose duty was to distribute justice to those placed

  under him. They gave to each company or trade a banner, under which

  every man was expected to appear armed, whenever the city required it.

  These arts were at first twelve, seven major and five minor. The minor

  arts were afterward increased to fourteen, so that the whole made, as

  at present, twenty-one. The thirty-six reformers also effected other

  changes for the common good.

  Count Guido proposed to lay a tax upon the citizens for the support of

  the soldiery; but during the discussion found so much difficulty, that

  he did not dare to use force to obtain it; and thinking he had now

  lost the government, called together the leaders of the Ghibellines,

  and they determined to wrest from the people those powers which they

  had with so little prudence conceded. When they thought they had

  sufficient force, the thirty-six being assembled, they caused a tumult

  to be raised, which so alarmed them that they retired to their houses,

  when suddenly the banners of the Arts were unfurled, and many armed

  men drawn to them. These, learning that Count Guido and his followers

  were at St. John's, moved toward the Holy Trinity, and chose Giovanni

  Soldanieri for their leader. The count, on the other hand, being

  informed where the people were assembled, proceeded in that direction;

  nor did the people shun the fight, for, meeting their enemies where

  now stands the residence of the Tornaquinci, they put the count to

  flight, with the loss of many of his followers. Terrified with this

  result, he was afraid his enemies would attack him in the night, and

  that his own party, finding themselves beaten, would murder him. This

  impression took such hold of his mind that, without attempting any

  other remedy, he sought his safety rather in flight than in combat,

  and, contrary to the advice of the rectors, went with all his people

  to Prato. But, on finding himself in a place of safety, his fears

  fled; perceiving his error he wished to correct it, and on the

  following day, as soon as light appeared, he returned with his people

  to Florence, to enter the city by force which he had abandoned in

  cowardice. But his design did not succeed; for the people, who had had

  difficulty in expelling him, kept him out with facility; so that with

  grief and shame he went to the Casentino, and the Ghibellines withdrew

  to their villas.

  The people being victorious, by the advice of those who loved the good

  of the republic, determined to reunite the city, and recall all the

  citizens as well Guelph as Ghibelline, who yet remained without. The

  Guelphs returned, after having been expelled six years; the recent

  offences of the Ghibellines were forgiven, and themselves restored to

  their country. They were, however, most cordially hated, both by the

  people and the Guelphs, for the latter could not forget their exile,

  and the former but too well remembered their tyranny when they were in

  power; the result was, that the minds of neither party became settled.

  While affairs were in this state at Florence, a report prevailed that

  Corradino, nephew of Manfred, was coming with a force from Germany,

  for the conquest of Naples; this gave the Ghibellines hope of

  recovering power, and the Guelphs, considering how they should provide

  for their security, requested assistance from Charles for their

  defense, in case of the passage of Corradino. The coming of the forces

  of Charles rendered the Guelphs insolent, and so alarmed the

  Ghibellines that they fled the city, without being driven out, two

  days before the arrival of the troops.

  The Ghibellines having departed, the Florentines reorganized the

  government of the city, and elected twelve men who, as the supreme

  power, were to hold their magistracy two months, and were not called

  Anziani or "ancients," but Buono Uomini or "good men." They also

  formed a council of eighty citizens, which they called the Credenza.

  Besides these, from each sixth, thirty citizens were chosen, who, with

  the Credenza and the twelve Buono Uomini, were called the General

  Council. They also appointed another council of one hundred and twenty

  citizens, elected from the people and the nobility, to which all those

  things were finally referred that had undergone the consideration of

  the other councils, and which distributed the offices of the republic.

  Having formed this government, they strengthened the Guelphic party by

  appointing its friends to the principal offices of state, and a

  variety of other measures, that they might be enabled to defend

  themselves against the Ghibellines, whose property they divided into

  three parts, one of which was applied to the public use, another to

  the Capitani, and the third was assigned to the Guelphs, in

  satisfaction of the injuries they had received. The pope, too, in

  order to keep Tuscany in the Guelphic interest, made Charles imperial

  vicar over the province. While the Florentines, by virtue of the new

  government, preserved their influence at home by laws, and abroad with

  arms, the pope died, and after a dispute, which continued two years,

  Gregory X. was elected, being then in Syria, where he had long lived;

  but not having witnessed the working of parties, he did not estimate

  them in the manner his predecessors had done, and passing through

  Florence on his way to France, he thought it would be the office of a

  good pastor to unite the city, and so far succeeded that the

  Florentines consented to receive the Syndics of the Ghibellines in

  Florence to consider the terms of their recall. They effected an

  agreement, but the Ghibellines without were so terrified that they did

  not venture to return. The pope laid the whole blame upon the city,

  and being enraged excommunicated her, in which state of contumacy she

  remained as long as the pontiff lived; but was reblessed by his

  successor Innocent V.

  The pontificate was afterward occupied by Nicholas III. of the Orsini

  family. It has to be remarked that it was invariably the custom of the

  popes to be jealous of those whose power in Italy had become great,

  even when its growth had been occasioned by the favors of the church;

  and as they always endeavored to destroy it, frequent troubles and

  changes were the result. Their fear of a powerful person caused them

  to increase the influence of one previously weak; his becoming great

  caused him also to be feared, and his being feared made them seek the

  means of destroying him. This mode of thinking and operation

  occasioned the kingdom of Naples to be taken from Manfred and given to

  Charles, but as soon as the latter became powerful his ruin was

  resolved upon. Actuated by these motives, Nicholas III. contrived

  that, with the influence of the emperor, the government of Tuscany

  should be taken from Charles, and Latino his legate was therefore sent

  into the province in the name of the empire.

  CHAPTER III

  Changes in Florence--The Ghibellines recalled--New form of

  government in Floren
ce--The Signory created--Victory over the

  Aretins--The Gonfalonier of Justice created--Ubaldo Ruffoli the

  first Gonfalonier--Giano della Bella--New reform by his advice--

  Giano della Bella becomes a voluntary exile--Dissensions between

  the people and the nobility--The tumults composed--Reform of

  Government--Public buildings--The prosperous state of the city.

  Florence was at this time in a very unhappy condition; for the great

  Guelphic families had become insolent, and set aside the authority of

  the magistrates; so that murders and other atrocities were daily

  committed, and the perpetrators escaped unpunished, under the

  protection of one or other of the nobility. The leaders of the people,

  in order to restrain this insolence, determined to recall those who

  had been expelled, and thus gave the legate an opportunity of uniting

  the city. The Ghibellines returned, and, instead of twelve governors,

  fourteen were appointed, seven for each party, who held their office

  one year, and were to be chosen by the pope. The Florentines lived

  under this government two years, till the pontificate of Martin, who

  restored to Charles all the authority which had been taken from him by

  Nicholas, so that parties were again active in Tuscany; for the

  Florentines took arms against the emperor's governor, and to deprive

  the Ghibellines of power, and restrain the nobility, established a new

  form of government. This was in the year 1282, and the companies of

  the Arts, since magistrates had been appointed and colors given to

  them, had acquired so great influence, that of their own authority

  they ordered that, instead of fourteen citizens, three should be

  appointed and called Priors, to hold the government of the republic

  two months, and chosen from either the people or the nobility. After

  the expiration of the first magistracy they were augmented to six,

  that one might be chosen from each sixth of the city, and this number

  was preserved till the year 1342, when the city was divided into

  quarters, and the Priors became eight, although upon some occasions

  during the interim they were twelve.

  This government, as will be seen hereafter, occasioned the ruin of the

  nobility; for the people by various causes excluded them from all

  participation in it, and then trampled upon them without respect. The

  nobles at first, owing to their divisions among themselves, made no

  opposition; and each being anxious to rob the other of influence in

  the state, they lost it altogether. To this government a palace was

  given, in which they were to reside constantly, and all requisite

  officers were appointed; it having been previously the custom of

  councils and magistrates to assemble in churches. At first they were

  only called Priors, but to increase their distinction the word

  signori, or lords, was soon afterward adopted. The Florentines

  remained for some time in domestic quiet, during which they made war

  with the Aretins for having expelled the Guelphs, and obtained a

  complete victory over them at Campaldino. The city being increased in

  riches and population, it was found expedient to extend the walls, the

  circle of which was enlarged to the extent it at present remains,

  although its diameter was previously only the space between the old

  bridge and the church of St. Lorenzo.

  Wars abroad and peace within the city had caused the Guelph and

  Ghibelline factions to become almost extinct; and the only party

  feeling which seemed occasionally to glow, was that which naturally

  exists in all cities between the higher classes and the people; for

  the latter, wishing to live in conformity with the laws, and the

  former to be themselves the rulers of the people, it was not possible

  for them to abide in perfect amity together. This ungenial

  disposition, while their fear of the Ghibellines kept them in order,

  did not discover itself, but no sooner were they subdued than it broke

  forth, and not a day passed without some of the populace being

  injured, while the laws were insufficient to procure redress, for