History of Florence and of the Affairs of Italy

by Niccolo Machiavelli

all the Florentine emigrants, to whom he had promised restoration to

  their country. The leaders of the government thought, that in order to

  lessen the number of their enemies, it would be well to recall, of

  their own will, all who had been expelled, excepting such as the law

  had expressly forbidden to return. Of the number not admitted, were

  the greater part of the Ghibellines, and some of those of the Bianchi

  faction, among whom were Dante Alighieri, the sons of Veri de' Cerchi

  and of Giano della Bella. Besides this they sent for aid to Robert,

  king of Naples, and not being able to obtain it of him as friends,

  they gave their city to him for five years, that he might defend them

  as his own people. The emperor entered Italy by the way of Pisa, and

  proceeded by the marshes to Rome, where he was crowned in the year

  1312. Then, having determined to subdue the Florentines, he approached

  their city by the way of Perugia and Arezzo, and halted with his army

  at the monastery of San Salvi, about a mile from Florence, where he

  remained fifty days without effecting anything. Despairing of success

  against Florence, he returned to Pisa, where he entered into an

  agreement with Frederick, king of Sicily, to undertake the conquest of

  Naples, and proceeded with his people accordingly; but while filled

  with the hope of victory, and carrying dismay into the heart of King

  Robert, having reached Buonconvento, he died.

  Shortly after this, Uguccione della Faggiuola, having by means of the

  Ghibelline party become lord of Pisa and of Lucca, caused, with the

  assistance of these cities, very serious annoyance to the neighbouring

  places. In order to effect their relief the Florentines requested King

  Robert would allow his brother Piero to take the command of their

  armies. On the other hand, Uguccione continued to increase his power;

  and either by force or fraud obtained possession of many castles in

  the Val d'Arno and the Val di Nievole; and having besieged Monte

  Cataini, the Florentines found it would be necessary to send to its

  relief, that they might not see him burn and destroy their whole

  territory. Having drawn together a large army, they entered the Val di

  Nievole where they came up with Uguccione, and were routed after a

  severe battle in which Piero the king's brother and 2,000 men were

  slain; but the body of the Prince was never found. Neither was the

  victory a joyful one to Uguccione; for one of his sons, and many of

  the leaders of his army, fell in the strife.

  The Florentines after this defeat fortified their territory, and King

  Robert sent them, for commander of their forces, the Count d'Andria,

  usually called Count Novello, by whose deportment, or because it is

  natural to the Florentines to find every state tedious, the city,

  notwithstanding the war with Uguccione, became divided into friends

  and enemies of the king. Simon della Tosa, the Magalotti, and certain

  others of the people who had attained greater influence in the

  government than the rest, were leaders of the party against the king.

  By these means messengers were sent to France, and afterward into

  Germany, to solicit leaders and forces that they might drive out the

  count, whom the king had appointed governor; but they failed of

  obtaining any. Nevertheless they did not abandon their undertaking,

  but still desirous of one whom they might worship, after an unavailing

  search in France and Germany, they discovered him at Agobbio, and

  having expelled the Count Novello, caused Lando d'Agobbio to be

  brought into the city as Bargello sheriff), and gave him the most

  unlimited power of the citizens. This man was cruel and rapacious; and

  going through the country accompanied with an armed force, he put many

  to death at the mere instigation of those who had endowed him with

  authority. His insolence rose to such a height, that he stamped base

  metal with the impression used upon the money of the state, and no one

  had sufficient courage to oppose him, so powerful had he become by the

  discords of Florence. Great, certainly, but unhappy city! which

  neither the memory of past divisions, the fear of her enemies, nor a

  king's authority, could unite for her own advantage; so that she found

  herself in a state of the utmost wretchedness, harassed without by

  Uguccione, and plundered within by Lando d'Agobbio.

  The friends of the king and those who opposed Lando and his followers,

  were either of noble families or the highest of the people, and all

  Guelphs; but their adversaries being in power they could not discover

  their minds without incurring the greatest danger. Being, however,

  determined to deliver themselves from such disgraceful tyranny, they

  secretly wrote to King Robert, requesting him to appoint for his vicar

  in Florence Count Guido da Battifolle. The king complied; and the

  opposite party, although the Signory were opposed to the king, on

  account of the good quality of the count, did not dare to resist him.

  Still his authority was not great, because the Signory and

  Gonfaloniers of the companies were in favor of Lando and his party.

  During these troubles, the daughter of King Albert of Bohemia passed

  through Florence, in search of her husband, Charles, the son of King

  Robert, and was received with the greatest respect by the friends of

  the king, who complained to her of the unhappy state of the city, and

  of the tyranny of Lando and his partisans; so that through her

  influence and the exertions of the king's friends, the citizens were

  again united, and before her departure, Lando was stripped of all

  authority and send back to Agobbio, laden with blood and plunder. In

  reforming the government, the sovereignty of the city was continued to

  the king for another three years, and as there were then in office

  seven Signors of the party of Lando, six more were appointed of the

  king's friends, and some magistracies were composed of thirteen

  Signors; but not long afterward the number was reduced to seven

  according to ancient custom.

  CHAPTER VI

  War with Castruccio--Castruccio marches against Prato and retires

  without making any attempt--The emigrants not being allowed to

  return, endeavor to enter the city by force, and are repulsed--

  Change in the mode of electing the great officers of state--The

  Squittini established--The Florentines under Raymond of Cardona

  are routed by Castruccio at Altopascio--Treacherous designs of

  Raymond--The Florentines give the sovereignty of the city to

  Charles duke of Cambria, who appoints the duke of Athens for his

  vicar--The duke of Calabria comes to Florence--The Emperor Louis

  of Bavaria visits Italy--The excitement he produces--Death of

  Castruccio and of Charles duke of Calabria--Reform of government.

  About the same time, Uguccione lost the sovereignty of Lucca and of

  Pisa, and Castruccio Castracani, a citizen of Lucca, became lord of

  them, who, being a young man, bold and fierce, and fortunate in his

  enterprises, in a short time became the head of the Ghibellines in

  Tuscany. On this account the discord
s among the Florentines were laid

  aside for some years, at first to abate the increasing power of

  Castruccio, and afterward to unite their means for mutual defense

  against him. And in order to give increased strength and efficacy to

  their counsels, the Signory appointed twelve citizens whom they called

  Buonomini, or good men, without whose advice and consent nothing of

  any importance could be carried into effect. The conclusion of the

  sovereignty of King Robert being come, the citizens took the

  government into their own hands, reappointed the usual rectors and

  magistracies, and were kept united by the dread of Castruccio, who,

  after many efforts against the lords of Lunigiano, attacked Prato, to

  the relief of which the Florentines having resolved to go, shut up

  their shops and houses, and proceeded thither in a body, amounting to

  twenty thousand foot and one thousand five hundred horse. And in order

  to reduce the number of Castruccio's friends and augment their own,

  the Signory declared that every rebel of the Guelphic party who should

  come to the relief of Prato would be restored to his country; they

  thus increased their army with an addition of four thousand men. This

  great force being quickly brought to Prato, alarmed Castruccio so

  much, that without trying the fortune of battle, he retired toward

  Lucca. Upon this, disturbances arose in the Florentine camp between

  the nobility and the people, the latter of whom wished to pursue the

  foe and destroy him; the former were for returning home, saying they

  had done enough for Prato in hazarding the safety of Florence on its

  account, which they did not regret under the circumstances, but now,

  that necessity no longer existing, the propriety of further risk

  ceased also, as there was little to be gained and much to lose.

  Not being able to agree, the question was referred to the Signory,

  among whom the difference of opinion was equally great; and as the

  matter spread throughout the city, the people drew together, and used

  such threatening language against the nobility that they, being

  apprehensive for their safety, yielded; but the resolution being

  adopted too late, and by many unwillingly, gave the enemy time to

  withdraw in safety to Lucca.

  This unfortunate circumstance made the people so indignant against the

  great that the Signory refused to perform the promise made to the

  exiles, and the latter, anticipating the fact, determined to be

  beforehand, and were at the gates of Florence to gain admittance into

  the city before the rest of the forces; but their design did not take

  effect, for their purpose being foreseen, they were repulsed by those

  who had remained at home. They then endeavored to acquire by entreaty

  what they had failed to obtain by force; and sent eight men as

  ambassadors to the Signory, to remind them of the promise given, and

  of the dangers they had undergone, in hope of the reward which had

  been held out to them. And although the nobility, who felt the

  obligation on account of their having particularly undertaken to

  fulfill the promise for which the Signory had bound themselves, used

  their utmost exertion in favor of the exiles, so great was the anger

  of the multitude on account of their only partial success against

  Castruccio, that they could not obtain their admission. This

  occasioned cost and dishonor to the city; for many of the nobility,

  taking offense at this proceeding, endeavored to obtain by arms that

  which had been refused to their prayers, and agreed with the exiles

  that they should come armed to the city, and that those within would

  arm themselves in their defense. But the affair was discovered before

  the appointed day arrived, so that those without found the city in

  arms, and prepared to resist them. So completely subdued were those

  within, that none dared to take arms; and thus the undertaking was

  abandoned, without any advantage having been obtained by the party.

  After the departure of the exiles it was determined to punish those

  who had been instrumental in bringing them to the city; but, although

  everyone knew who were the delinquents, none ventured to name and

  still less to accuse them. It was, therefore, resolved that in order

  to come at the truth, everyone should write the names of those he

  believed to be guilty, and present the writing secretly to the

  Capitano. By this means, Amerigo Donati, Teghiajo, Frescobaldi, and

  Lotteringo Gherardini were accused; but, the judges being more

  favorably disposed to them than, perhaps, their misdeeds deserved,

  each escaped by paying a fine.

  The tumults which arose in Florence from the coming of the rebels to

  the gates, showed that one leader was insufficient for the companies

  of the people; they, therefore, determined that in future each should

  have three or four; and to every Gonfalonier two or three Pennonieri

  (pennon bearers) were added, so that if the whole body were not drawn

  out, a part might operate under one of them. And as happens in

  republics, after any disturbance, some old laws are annulled and

  others renewed, so on this occasion, as it had been previously

  customary to appoint the Signory for a time only, the then existing

  Signors and the Colleagues, feeling themselves possessed of sufficient

  power, assumed the authority to fix upon the Signors that would have

  to sit during the next forty months, by putting their names into a bag

  or purse, and drawing them every two months. But, before the

  expiration of the forty months, many citizens were jealous that their

  names had not been deposited among the rest, and a new emborsation was

  made. From this beginning arose the custom of emborsing or enclosing

  the names of all who should take office in any of the magistracies for

  a long time to come, as well those whose offices employed them within

  the city as those abroad, though previously the councils of the

  retiring magistrates had elected those who were to succeed them. These

  emborsations were afterward called Squittini, or pollings,--and it was

  thought they would prevent much trouble to the city, and remove the

  cause of those tumults which every three, or at most five, years, took

  place upon the creation of magistrates, from the number of candidates

  for office. And not being able to adopt a better expedient, they made

  use of this, but did not observe the defects which lay concealed under

  such a trivial accommodation.

  In 1325, Castruccio, having taken possession of Pistoia, became so

  powerful that the Florentines, fearing his greatness, resolved, before

  he should get himself firmly seated in his new conquest, to attack him

  and withdraw it from his authority. Of their citizens and friends they

  mustered an army amounting to 20,000 foot and 3,000 horse, and with

  this body encamped before Altopascio, with the intention of taking the

  place and thus preventing it from relieving Pistoia. Being successful

  in the first part of their design, they marched toward Lucca, and laid

  the country waste in their progress; but from the little prudence and

  less integrity of t
heir leader, Ramondo di Cardona, they made but

  small progress; for he, having observed them upon former occasions

  very prodigal of their liberty, placing it sometimes in the hands of a

  king, at others in those of a legate, or persons of even inferior

  quality, thought, if he could bring them into some difficulty, it

  might easily happen that they would make him their prince. Nor did he

  fail frequently to mention these matters, and required to have that

  authority in the city which had been given him over the army,

  endeavoring to show that otherwise he could not enforce the obedience

  requisite to a leader. As the Florentines did not consent to this, he

  wasted time, and allowed Castruccio to obtain the assistance which the

  Visconti and other tyrants of Lombardy had promised him, and thus

  become very strong. Ramondo, having willfully let the opportunity of

  victory pass away, now found himself unable to escape; for Castruccio

  coming up with him at Altopascio, a great battle ensued in which many

  citizens were slain and taken prisoners, and among the former fell

  Ramondo, who received from fortune that reward of bad faith and

  mischievous counsels which he had richly deserved from the

  Florentines. The injury they suffered from Castruccio, after the

  battle, in plunder, prisoners, destruction, and burning of property,

  is quite indescribable; for, without any opposition, during many

  months, he led his predatory forces wherever he thought proper, and it

  seemed sufficient to the Florentines if, after such a terrible event,

  they could save their city.

  Still they were not so absolutely cast down as to prevent them from

  raising great sums of money, hiring troops, and sending to their

  friends for assistance; but all they could do was insufficient to

  restrain such a powerful enemy; so that they were obliged to offer the

  sovereignty to Charles duke of Calabria, son of King Robert, if they

  could induce him to come to their defense; for these princes, being

  accustomed to rule Florence, preferred her obedience to her

  friendship. But Charles, being engaged in the wars of Sicily, and

  therefore unable to undertake the sovereignty of the city, sent in his

  stead Walter, by birth a Frenchman, and duke of Athens. He, as

  viceroy, took possession of the city, and appointed the magistracies

  according to his own pleasure; but his mode of proceeding was quite

  correct, and so completely contrary to his real nature, that everyone

  respected him.

  The affairs of Sicily being composed, Charles came to Florence with a

  thousand horse. He made his entry into the city in July, 1326, and his

  coming prevented further pillage of the Florentine territory by

  Castruccio. However, the influence which they acquired without the

  city was lost within her walls, and the evils which they did not

  suffer from their enemies were brought upon them by their friends; for

  the Signory could not do anything without the consent of the duke of

  Calabria, who, in the course of one year, drew from the people 400,000

  florins, although by the agreement entered into with him, the sum was

  not to exceed 200,000; so great were the burdens with which either

  himself or his father constantly oppressed them.

  To these troubles were added new jealousies and new enemies; for the

  Ghibellines of Lombardy became so alarmed upon the arrival of Charles

  in Tuscany, that Galeazzo Visconti and the other Lombard tyrants, by

  money and promises, induced Louis of Bavaria, who had lately been

  elected emperor contrary to the wish of the pope, to come into Italy.

  After passing through Lombardy he entered Tuscany, and with the

  assistance of Castruccio, made himself master of Pisa, from whence,

  having been pacified with sums of money, he directed his course

  towards Rome. This caused the duke of Calabria to be apprehensive for

  the safety of Naples; he therefore left Florence, and appointed as his

  viceroy Filippo da Saggineto.

  After the departure of the emperor, Castruccio made himself master of