History of Florence and of the Affairs of Italy

by Niccolo Machiavelli

would still be better to wait and let him commence the attack, than to

  assail him; for in the former case they would be justified in the view

  of the princes of Italy as well as in their own; but if they were to

  strike the first blow at the duke, public opinion would be as

  favorable to him as to themselves; and besides, they could not so

  confidently demand assistance as assailants, as they might do if

  assailed; and that men always defend themselves more vigorously when

  they attack others. The advocates of war considered it improper to

  await the enemy in their houses, and better to go and seek him; that

  fortune is always more favorable to assailants than to such as merely

  act on the defensive, and that it is less injurious, even when

  attended with greater immediate expense, to make war at another's door

  than at our own. These views prevailed, and it was resolved that the

  ten should provide all the means in their power for rescuing Furli

  from the hands of the duke.

  Filippo, finding the Florentines resolved to occupy the places he had

  undertaken to defend, postponed all personal considerations, and sent

  Agnolo della Pergola with a strong force against Imola, that Ludovico,

  having to provide for the defense of his own possessions, might be

  unable to protect the interests of his grandson. Agnolo approached

  Imola while the forces of the Florentines were at Modigliana, and an

  intense frost having rendered the ditches of the city passable, he

  crossed them during the night, captured the place, and sent Lodovico a

  prisoner to Milan. The Florentines finding Imola in the hands of the

  enemy, and the war publicly known, sent their forces to Furli and

  besieged it on all sides. That the duke's people might not relieve it,

  they hired Count Alberigo, who from Zagonara, his own domain, overran

  the country daily, up to the gates of Imola. Agnolo della Pergola,

  finding the strong position which the Florentines had taken prevented

  him from relieving Furli, determined to attempt the capture of

  Zagonara, thinking they would not allow that place to be lost, and

  that in the endeavor to relieve it they would be compelled to give up

  their design against Furli, and come to an engagement under great

  disadvantage. Thus the duke's people compelled Alberigo to sue for

  terms, which he obtained on condition of giving up Zagonara, if the

  Florentines did not relieve him within fifteen days. This misfortune

  being known in the Florentine camp and in the city, and all being

  anxious that the enemy should not obtain the expected advantage, they

  enabled him to secure a greater; for having abandoned the siege of

  Furli to go to the relief of Zagonara, on encountering the enemy they

  were soon routed, not so much by the bravery of their adversaries as

  by the severity of the season; for, having marched many hours through

  deep mud and heavy rain, they found the enemy quite fresh, and were

  therefore easily vanquished. Nevertheless, in this great defeat,

  famous throughout all Italy, no death occurred except those of

  Lodovico degli Obizi and two of his people, who having fallen from

  their horses were drowned in the morass.

  CHAPTER II

  The Florentines murmur against those who had been advocates of the

  war--Rinaldo degli Albizzi encourages the citizens--Measures for

  the prosecution of the war--Attempt of the higher classes to

  deprive the plebeians of their share in the government--Rinaldo

  degli Albizzi addresses an assembly of citizens and advises the

  restoration of the /Grandi/--Niccolo da Uzzano wishes to have

  Giovanni de' Medici on their side--Giovanni disapproves of the

  advice of Rinaldo degli Albizzi.

  The defeat at Zagonara spread consternation throughout Florence; but

  none felt it so severely as the nobility, who had been in favor of the

  war; for they perceived their enemies to be inspirited and themselves

  disarmed, without friends, and opposed by the people, who at the

  corners of streets insulted them with sarcastic expressions,

  complaining of the heavy taxes, and the unnecessary war, and saying,

  "Oh! they appointed the ten to frighten the enemy. Have they relieved

  Furli, and rescued her from the hands of the duke? No! but their

  designs have been discovered; and what had they in view? not the

  defense of liberty; for they do not love her; but to aggrandize their

  own power, which God has very justly abated. This is not the only

  enterprise by many a one with which they have oppressed the city; for

  the war against King Ladislaus was of a similar kind. To whom will

  they flee for assistance now? to Pope Martin, whom they ridiculed

  before the face of Braccio; or to Queen Giovanna, whom they abandoned,

  and compelled to throw herself under the protection of the king of

  Aragon?" To these reproaches was added all that might be expected from

  an enraged multitude.

  Seeing the discontent so prevalent, the Signory resolved to assemble a

  few citizens, and with soft words endeavor to soothe the popular

  irritation. On this occasion, Rinaldo degli Albizzi, the eldest son of

  Maso, who, by his own talents and the respect he derived from the

  memory of his father, aspired to the first offices in the government,

  spoke at great length; showing that it is not right to judge of

  actions merely by their effects; for it often happens that what has

  been very maturely considered is attended with unfavorable results:

  that if we are to applaud evil counsels because they are sometimes

  followed by fortunate events, we should only encourage men in error

  which would bring great mischief upon the republic; because evil

  counsel is not always attended with happy consequences. In the same

  way, it would be wrong to blame a wise resolution, because if its

  being attended with an unfavorable issue; for by so doing, we should

  destroy the inclination of citizens to offer advice and speak the

  truth. He then showed the propriety of undertaking the war; and that

  if it had not been commenced by the Florentines in Romagna the duke

  would have assailed them in Tuscany. But since it had pleased God,

  that the Florentine people should be overcome, their loss would be

  still greater if they allowed themselves to be dejected; but if they

  set a bold front against adversity, and made good use of the means

  within their power, they would not be sensible of their loss or the

  duke of his victory. He assured them they ought not to be alarmed by

  impending expenses and consequent taxation; because the latter might

  be reduced, and the future expense would not be so great as the former

  had been; for less preparation is necessary for those engaged in self-

  defense than for those who design to attack others. He advised them to

  imitate the conduct of their forefathers, who, by courageous conduct

  in adverse circumstances, had defended themselves against all their

  enemies.

  Thus encouraged, the citizens engaged Count Oddo the son of Braccio,

  and united with him, for directing the operations of the war, Niccolo

  Piccinino, a pupil of his father's, and one of the mos
t celebrated of

  all who had served under him. To these they added other leaders, and

  remounted some of those who had lost their horses in the late defeat.

  They also appointed twenty citizens to levy new taxes, who finding the

  great quite subdued by the recent loss, took courage and drained them

  without mercy.

  These burdens were very grievous to the nobility, who at first, in

  order to conciliate, did not complain of their own particular

  hardships, but censured the tax generally as unjust, and advised that

  something should be done in the way of relief; but their advice was

  rejected in the Councils. Therefore, to render the law as offensive as

  possible, and to make all sensible of its injustice, they contrived

  that the taxes should be levied with the utmost rigor, and made it

  lawful to kill any that might resist the officers employed to collect

  them. Hence followed many lamentable collisions, attended with the

  blood and death of citizens. It began to be the impression of all,

  that arms would be resorted to, and all prudent persons apprehended

  some approaching evil; for the higher ranks, accustomed to be treated

  with respect, could not endure to be used like dogs; and the rest were

  desirous that the taxation should be equalized. In consequence of this

  state of things, many of the first citizens met together, and it was

  resolved that it had become necessary for their safety, that some

  attempt should be made to recover the government; since their want of

  vigilance had encouraged men to censure public actions, and allowed

  those to interfere in affairs who had hitherto been merely the leaders

  of the rabble. Having repeatedly discussed the subject, they resolved

  to meet again at an appointed hour, when upwards of seventy citizens

  assembled in the church of St. Stephen, with the permission of Lorenzo

  Ridolfi and Francesco Gianfigliazzi, both members of the Signory.

  Giovanni de' Medici was not among them either because being under

  suspicion he was not invited or that entertaining different views he

  was unwilling to interfere.

  Rinaldo degli Albizzi addressed the assembly, describing the condition

  of the city, and showing how by their own negligence it had again

  fallen under the power of the plebeians, from whom it had been wrested

  by their fathers in 1381. He reminded them of the iniquity of the

  government which was in power from 1378 to 1381, and that all who were

  then present had to lament, some a father, others a grandfather, put

  to death by its tyranny. He assured them they were now in the same

  danger, and that the city was sinking under the same disorders. The

  multitude had already imposed a tax of its own authority; and would

  soon, if not restrained by greater force or better regulations,

  appoint the magistrates, who, in this case, would occupy their places,

  and overturn the government which for forty-two years had ruled the

  city with so much glory; the citizens would then be subject to the

  will of the multitude, and live disorderly and dangerous, or be under

  the command of some individual who might make himself prince. For

  these reasons he was of opinion, that whoever loved his country and

  his honor must arouse himself, and call to mind the virtue of Bardo

  Mancini, who, by the ruin of the Alberti, rescued the city from the

  dangers then impending; and that the cause of the audacity now assumed

  by the multitude was the extensive Squittini or Pollings, which, by

  their negligence, were allowed to be made; for thus the palace had

  become filled with low men. He therefore concluded, that the only

  means of remedying the evil was to restore the government to the

  nobility, and diminish the authority of the minor trades by reducing

  the companies from fourteen to seven, which would give the plebeians

  less authority in the Councils, both by the reduction in their number

  and by increasing the authority of the great; who, on account of

  former enmities, would be disinclined to favor them. He added, that it

  is a good thing to know how to avail themselves of men according to

  the times; and that as their fathers had used the plebeians to reduce

  the influence of the great, that now, the great having been humbled,

  and the plebeians become insolent, it was well to restrain the

  insolence of the latter by the assistance of the former. To effect

  this they might proceed either openly or otherwise, for some of them

  belonging to the Council of Ten, forces might be led into the city

  without exciting observation.

  Rinaldo was much applauded, and his advice was approved of by the

  whole assembly. Niccolo da Uzzano who, among others, replied to it,

  said, "All that Rinaldo had advanced was correct, and the remedies he

  proposed good and certain, if they could be adopted without an

  absolute division of the city; and this he had no doubt would be

  effected if they could induce Giovanni de' Medici to join them; for

  with him on their side, the multitude being deprived of their chief

  and stay, would be unable to oppose them; but that if he did not

  concur with them they could do nothing without arms, and that with

  them they would incur the risk of being vanquished, or of not being

  able to reap the fruit of victory." He then modestly reminded them of

  what he had said upon a former occasion, and of their reluctance to

  remedy the evil when it might easily have been done; that now the same

  remedy could not be attempted without incurring the danger of greater

  evils, and therefore there was nothing left for them to do but to gain

  him over to their side, if practicable. Rinaldo was then commissioned

  to wait upon Giovanni and try if he could induce him to join them.

  He undertook this commission, and in the most prevailing words he

  could make use of endeavored to induce him to coincide with their

  views; and begged that he would not by favoring an audacious mob,

  enable them to complete the ruin both of the government and the city.

  To this Giovanni replied, that he considered it the duty of a good and

  wise citizen to avoid altering the institutions to which a city is

  accustomed; there being nothing so injurious to the people as such a

  change; for many are necessarily offended, and where there are several

  discontented, some unpropitious event may be constantly apprehended.

  He said it appeared to him that their resolution would have two

  exceedingly pernicious effects; the one conferring honors on those

  who, having never possessed them, esteemed them the less, and

  therefore had the less occasion to grieve for their absence; the other

  taking them from those who being accustomed to their possession would

  never be at rest till they were restored to them. It would thus be

  evident that the injury done to one party, was greater than the

  benefit they had conferred upon the other; so that whoever was the

  author of the proposition, he would gain few friends and make many

  enemies, and that the latter would be more resolutely bent on injuring

  him than the former would be zealous for his defense, for mankind are

  naturally more disposed to reveng
e than to gratitude, as if the latter

  could only be exercised with some inconvenience to themselves, while

  the former brings alike gratification and profit. Then, directing his

  discourse more particularly to Rinaldo, he said, "And you, if you

  could call to mind past events, and knew how craftily affairs are

  conducted in this city, would not be so eager in this pursuit; for he

  who advises it, when by your aid he has wrested the power from the

  people, will, with the people's assistance, who will have become your

  enemies, deprive you of it. And it will happen to you as to Benedetto

  Alberti, who, at the persuasion of those who were not his friends,

  consented to the ruin of Giorgio Scali and Tommaso Strozzi, and

  shortly afterward was himself sent into exile by the very same men."

  He therefore advised Rinaldo to think more maturely of these things,

  and endeavor to imitate his father, who, to obtain the benevolence of

  all, reduced the price of salt, provided that whoever owed taxes under

  half a florin should be at liberty to pay them or not, as he thought

  proper, and that at the meeting of the Councils every one should be

  free from the importunities of his creditors. He concluded by saying,

  that as regarded himself, he was disposed to let the government of the

  city remain as it was.

  CHAPTER III

  Giovanni de' Medici acquires the favor of the people--Bravery of

  Biaggio del Melano--Baseness of Zanobi del Pino--The Florentines

  obtain the friendship of the lord of Faenza--League of the

  Florentines with the Venetians--Origin of the Catasto--The rich

  citizens discontented with it--Peace with the duke of Milan--New

  disturbances on account of the Catasto.

  These events, and the circumstances attending them, becoming known to

  the people, contributed greatly to increase the reputation of

  Giovanni, and brought odium on those who had made the proposals; but

  he assumed an appearance of indifference, in order to give less

  encouragement to those who by his influence were desirous of change.

  In his discourse he intimated to every one that it is not desirable to

  promote factions, but rather to extinguish them; and that whatever

  might be expected of him, he only sought the union of the city. This,

  however, gave offense to many of his party; for they would have rather

  seen him exhibit greater activity. Among others so disposed, was

  Alamanno de' Medici, who being of a restless disposition, never ceased

  exciting him to persecute enemies and favor friends; condemning his

  coldness and slow method of proceeding, which he said was the cause of

  his enemies' practicing against him, and that these practices would

  one day effect the ruin of himself and his friends. He endeavored to

  excite Cosmo, his son, with similar discourses; but Giovanni, for all

  that was either disclosed or foretold him, remained unmoved, although

  parties were now declared, and the city in manifest disunion.

  There were at the palace, in the service of the Signory, two

  chancellors, Ser Martino and Ser Pagolo. The latter favored the party

  of Niccolo da Uzzano, the former that of Giovanni; and Rinaldo, seeing

  Giovanni unwilling to join them, thought it would be advisable to

  deprive Ser Martino of his office, that he might have the palace more

  completely under his control. The design becoming known to his

  adversaries, Ser Martino was retained and Ser Pagolo discharged, to

  the great injury and displeasure of Rinaldo and his party. This

  circumstance would soon have produced most mischievous effects, but

  for the war with which the city was threatened, and the recent defeat

  suffered at Zagonara, which served to check the audacity of the

  people; for while these events were in progress at Florence, Agnolo

  della Pergola, with the forces of the duke, had taken all the towns

  and cities possessed by the Florentines in Romagna, except Castracaro

  and Modigliano; partly from the weakness of the places themselves, and

  partly by the misconduct of those who had the command of them. In the