History of Florence and of the Affairs of Italy

by Niccolo Machiavelli

death. Thus ended his enterprise; and though some may applaud his

  intentions, he must stand charged with deficiency of understanding;

  for such undertakings, though possessing some slight appearance of

  glory, are almost always attended with ruin.

  Gherardo Gambacorti was lord of Val di Bagno, and his ancestors as

  well as himself had always been in the pay or under the protection of

  the Florentines. Alfonso endeavored to induce him to exchange his

  territory for another in the kingdom of Naples. This became known to

  the Signory, who, in order to ascertain his designs, sent an

  ambassador to Gambacorti, to remind him of the obligations of his

  ancestors and himself to their republic, and induce him to continue

  faithful to them. Gherardo affected the greatest astonishment, assured

  the ambassador with solemn oaths that no such treacherous thought had

  ever entered his mind, and that he would gladly go to Florence and

  pledge himself for the truth of his assertions; but being unable, from

  indisposition, he would send his son as an hostage. These assurances,

  and the proposal with which they were accompanied, induced the

  Florentines to think Gherardo had been slandered, and that his accuser

  must be alike weak and treacherous. Gherardo, however, hastened his

  negotiation with redoubled zeal, and having arranged the terms,

  Alfonso sent Frate Puccio, a knight of Jerusalem, with a strong body

  of men to the Val di Bagno, to take possession of the fortresses and

  towns, the people of which, being attached to the Florentine republic,

  submitted unwillingly.

  Frate Puccio had already taken possession of nearly the whole

  territory, except the fortress of Corzano. Gambacorti was accompanied,

  while transferring his dominions, by a young Pisan of great courage

  and address, named Antonio Gualandi, who, considering the whole

  affair, the strength of the place, the well known bravery of the

  garrison, their evident reluctance to give it up, and the baseness of

  Gambacorti, at once resolved to make an effort to prevent the

  fulfillment of his design; and Gherardo being at the entrance, for the

  purpose of introducing the Aragonese, he pushed him out with both his

  hands, and commanded the guards to shut the gate upon such a

  scoundrel, and hold the fortress for the Florentine republic. When

  this circumstance became known in Bagno and the neighboring places,

  the inhabitants took up arms against the king's forces, and, raising

  the Florentine standard, drove them out. The Florentines learning

  these events, imprisoned Gherardo's son, and sent troops to Bagno for

  the defense of the territory, which having hitherto been governed by

  its own prince, now became a vicariate. The traitor Gherardo escaped

  with difficulty, leaving his wife, family, and all his property, in

  the hands of those whom he had endeavored to betray. This affair was

  considered by the Florentines of great importance; for had the king

  succeeded in securing the territory, he might have overrun the Val di

  Tavere and the Casentino at his pleasure, and would have caused so

  much annoyance, that they could no longer have allowed their whole

  force to act against the army of the Aragonese at Sienna.

  In addition to the preparations made by the Florentines in Italy to

  resist the hostile League, they sent as ambassador, Agnolo Acciajuoli,

  to request that the king of France would allow Ren� of Anjou to enter

  Italy in favor of the duke and themselves, and also, that by his

  presence in the country, he might defend his friends and attempt the

  recovery of the kingdom of Naples; for which purpose they offered him

  assistance in men and money. While the war was proceeding in Lombardy

  and Tuscany, the ambassador effected an arrangement with King Ren�,

  who promised to come into Italy during the month of June, the League

  engaging to pay him thirty thousand florins upon his arrival at

  Alexandria, and ten thousand per month during the continuance of the

  war. In pursuance of this treaty, King Ren� commenced his march into

  Italy, but was stopped by the duke of Savoy and the marquis of

  Montferrat, who, being in alliance with the Venetians, would not allow

  him to pass. The Florentine ambassador advised, that in order to

  uphold the influence of his friends, he should return to Provence, and

  conduct part of his forces into Italy by sea, and, in the meantime,

  endeavor, by the authority of the king of France, to obtain a passage

  for the remainder through the territories of the duke. This plan was

  completely successful; for Ren� came into Italy by sea, and his

  forces, by the mediation of the king of France, were allowed a passage

  through Savoy. King Ren� was most honorably received by Duke

  Francesco, and joining his French with the Italian forces, they

  attacked the Venetians with so much impetuosity, that they shortly

  recovered all the places which had been taken in the Cremonese. Not

  content with this, they occupied nearly the whole Brescian territory;

  so that the Venetians, unable to keep the field, withdrew close to the

  walls of Brescia.

  Winter coming on, the duke deemed it advisable to retire into

  quarters, and appointed Piacenza for the forces of Ren�, where, having

  passed the whole of the cold season of 1453, without attempting

  anything, the duke thought of taking the field, on the approach of

  spring, and stripping the Venetians of the remainder of their

  possessions by land, but was informed by the king that he was obliged

  of necessity to return to France. This determination was quite new and

  unexpected to the duke, and caused him the utmost concern; but though

  he immediately went to dissuade Ren� from carrying it into effect, he

  was unable either by promises or entreaties to divert him from his

  purpose. He engaged, however, to leave part of his forces, and send

  his son for the service of the League. The Florentines were not

  displeased at this; for having recovered their territories and

  castles, they were no longer in fear of Alfonso, and on the other

  hand, they did not wish the duke to obtain any part of Lombardy but

  what belonged to him. Ren� took his departure, and send his son John

  into Italy, according to his promise, who did not remain in Lombardy,

  but came direct to Florence, where he was received with the highest

  respect.

  The king's departure made the duke desirous of peace. The Venetians,

  Alfonso, and the Florentines, being all weary of the war, were

  similarly disposed; and the pope continued to wish it as much as ever;

  for during this year the Turkish emperor, Mohammed, had taken

  Constantinople and subdued the whole of Greece. This conquest alarmed

  the Christians, more especially the Venetians and the pope, who

  already began to fancy the Mohammedans at their doors. The pope

  therefore begged the Italian potentates to send ambassadors to

  himself, with authority to negotiate a general peace, with which all

  complied; but when the particular circumstances of each case came to

  be considered, many difficulties were found in the war of effecting

  it. King Alfo
nso required the Florentines to reimburse the expenses he

  had incurred in the war, and the Florentines demanded some

  compensation from him. The Venetians thought themselves entitled to

  Cremona from the duke; while he insisted upon the restoration of

  Bergamo, Brescia, and Crema; so that it seemed impossible to reconcile

  such conflicting claims. But what could not be effected by a number at

  Rome was easily managed at Milan and Venice by two; for while the

  matter was under discussion at Rome, the duke and the Venetians came

  to an arrangement on the ninth of April, 1454, by virtue of which,

  each party resumed what they possessed before the war, the duke being

  allowed to recover from the princes of Montferrat and Savoy the places

  they had taken. To the other Italian powers a month was allowed to

  ratify the treaty. The pope and the Florentines, and with them the

  Siennese and other minor powers, acceded to it within the time.

  Besides this, the Florentines, the Venetians, and the duke concluded a

  treaty of peace for twenty-five years. King Alfonso alone exhibited

  dissatisfaction at what had taken place, thinking he had not been

  sufficiently considered, that he stood, not on the footing of a

  principal, but only ranked as an auxiliary, and therefore kept aloof,

  and would not disclose his intentions. However, after receiving a

  legate from the pope, and many solemn embassies from other powers, he

  allowed himself to be persuaded, principally by means of the pontiff,

  and with his son joined the League for thirty years. The duke and the

  king also contracted a twofold relationship and double marriage, each

  giving a daughter to a son of the other. Notwithstanding this, that

  Italy might still retain the seeds of war, Alfonso would not consent

  to the peace, unless the League would allow him, without injury to

  themselves, to make war upon the Genoese, Gismondo Malatesti, and

  Astorre, prince of Faenza. This being conceded, his son Ferrando, who

  was at Sienna, returned to the kingdom, having by his coming into

  Tuscany acquired no dominion and lost a great number of his men.

  Upon the establishment of a general peace, the only apprehension

  entertained was, that it would be disturbed by the animosity of

  Alfonso against the Genoese; yet it happened otherwise. The king,

  indeed, did not openly infringe the peace, but it was frequently

  broken by the ambition of the mercenary troops. The Venetians, as

  usual on the conclusion of a war, had discharged Jacopo Piccinino, who

  with some other unemployed condottieri, marched into Romagna, thence

  into the Siennese, and halting in the country, took possession of many

  places. At the commencement of these disturbances, and the beginning

  of the year 1455, Pope Nicholas died, and was succeeded by Calixtus

  III., who, to put a stop to the war newly broken out so near home,

  immediately sent Giovanni Ventimiglia, his general, with what forces

  he could furnish. These being joined by the troops of the Florentines

  and the duke of Milan, both of whom furnished assistance, attacked

  Jacopo, near Bolsena, and though Ventimiglia was taken prisoner, yet

  Jacopo was worsted, and retreated in disorder to Castiglione della

  Pescaia, where, had he not been assisted by Alfonso, his force would

  have been completely annihilated. This made it evident that Jacopo's

  movement had been made by order of Alfonso, and the latter, as if

  palpably detected, to conciliate his allies, after having almost

  alienated them with this unimportant war, ordered Jacopo to restore to

  the Siennese the places he had taken, and they gave him twenty

  thousand florins by way of ransom, after which he and his forces were

  received into the kingdom of Naples.

  CHAPTER VII

  Christendom alarmed by the progress of the Turks--The Turks routed

  before Belgrade--Description of a remarkable hurricane--War

  against the Genoese and Gismondo Malatesti--Genoa submits to the

  king of France--Death of Alfonso king of Naples--Succeeded by his

  son Ferrando--The pope designs to give the kingdom of Naples to

  his nephew Piero Lodovico Borgia--Eulogy of Pius II.--Disturbances

  in Genoa between John of Anjou and the Fregosi--The Fregosi

  subdued--John attacks the kingdom of Naples--Ferrando king of

  Naples routed--Ferrando reinstated--The Genoese cast off the

  French yoke--John of Anjou routed in the kingdom of Naples.

  The pope, though anxious to restrain Jacopo Piccinino, did not neglect

  to make provision for the defense of Christendom, which seemed in

  danger from the Turks. He sent ambassadors and preachers into every

  Christian country, to exhort princes and people to arm in defense of

  their religion, and with their persons and property to contribute to

  the enterprise against the common enemy. In Florence, large sums were

  raised, and many citizens bore the mark of a red cross upon their

  dress to intimate their readiness to become soldiers of the faith.

  Solemn processions were made, and nothing was neglected either in

  public or private, to show their willingness to be among the most

  forward to assist the enterprise with money, counsel, or men. But the

  eagerness for this crusade was somewhat abated, by learning that the

  Turkish army, being at the siege of Belgrade, a strong city and

  fortress in Hungary, upon the banks of the Danube, had been routed and

  the emperor wounded; so that the alarm felt by the pope and all

  Christendom, on the loss of Constantinople, having ceased to operate,

  they proceeded with deliberately with their preparations for war; and

  in Hungary their zeal was cooled through the death of Giovanni Corvini

  the Waiwode, who commanded the Hungarian forces on that memorable

  occasion, and fell in the battle.

  To return to the affairs of Italy. In the year 1456, the disturbances

  occasioned by Jacopo Piccinino having subsided, and human weapons laid

  aside, the heavens seemed to make war against the earth; dreadful

  tempestuous winds then occurring, which produced effects unprecedented

  in Tuscany, and which to posterity will appear marvelous and

  unaccountable. On the twenty-fourth of August, about an hour before

  daybreak, there arose from the Adriatic near Ancona, a whirlwind,

  which crossing from east to west, again reached the sea near Pisa,

  accompanied by thick clouds, and the most intense and impenetrable

  darkness, covering a breadth of about two miles in the direction of

  its course. Under some natural or supernatural influence, this vast

  and overcharged volume of condensed vapor burst; its fragments

  contended with indescribable fury, and huge bodies sometimes ascending

  toward heaven, and sometimes precipitated upon the earth, struggled,

  as it were, in mutual conflict, whirling in circles with intense

  velocity, and accompanied by winds, impetuous beyond all conception;

  while flashes of awful brilliancy, and murky, lurid flames incessantly

  broke forth. From these confused clouds, furious winds, and momentary

  fires, sounds issued, of which no earthquake or thunder ever heard

  could afford the least idea; striking such a
we into all, that it was

  thought the end of the world had arrived, that the earth, waters,

  heavens, and entire universe, mingling together, were being resolved

  into their ancient chaos. Wherever this awful tempest passed, it

  produced unprecedented and marvelous effects; but these were more

  especially experienced near the castle of St. Casciano, about eight

  miles from Florence, upon the hill which separates the valleys of Pisa

  and Grieve. Between this castle and the Borgo St. Andrea, upon the

  same hill, the tempest passed without touching the latter, and in the

  former, only threw down some of the battlements and the chimneys of a

  few houses; but in the space between them, it leveled many buildings

  quite to the ground. The roofs of the churches of St. Martin, at

  Bagnolo, and Santa Maria della Pace, were carried more than a mile,

  unbroken as when upon their respective edifices. A muleteer and his

  beasts were driven from the road into the adjoining valley, and found

  dead. All the large oaks and lofty trees which could not bend beneath

  its influence, were not only stripped of their branches but borne to a

  great distance from the places where they grew, and when the tempest

  had passed over and daylight made the desolation visible, the

  inhabitants were transfixed with dismay. The country had lost all its

  habitable character; churches and dwellings were laid in heaps;

  nothing was heard but the lamentations of those whose possessions had

  perished, or whose cattle or friends were buried beneath the ruins;

  and all who witnessed the scene were filled with anguish or

  compassion. It was doubtless the design of the Omnipotent, rather to

  threaten Tuscany than to chastise her; for had the hurricane been

  directed over the city, filled with houses and inhabitants, instead of

  proceeding among oaks and elms, or small and thinly scattered

  dwellings, it would have been such a scourge as the mind, with all its

  ideas of horror, could not have conceived. But the Almighty desired

  that this slight example should suffice to recall the minds of men to

  a knowledge of himself and of his power.

  To return to our history. King Alfonso was dissatisfied with the

  peace, and as the war which he had unnecessarily caused Jacopo

  Piccinino to make against the Siennese, had produced no important

  result, he resolved to try what could be done against those whom the

  conditions of the League permitted him to attack. He therefore, in the

  year 1456, assailed the Genoese, both by sea and by land, designing to

  deprive the Fregosi of the government and restore the Adorni. At the

  same time, he ordered Jacopo Piccinino to cross the Tronto, and attack

  Gismondo Malatesti, who, having fortified his territories, did not

  concern himself, and this part of the king's enterprise produced no

  effect; but his proceedings against Genoa occasioned more wars against

  himself and his kingdom than he could have wished. Piero Fregoso was

  then doge of Genoa, and doubting his ability to sustain the attack of

  the king, he determined to give what he could not hold, to some one

  who might defend it against his enemies, in hope, that at a future

  period, he should obtain a return for the benefit conferred. He

  therefore sent ambassadors to Charles VII. of France, and offered him

  the government of Genoa. Charles accepted the offer, and sent John of

  Anjou, the son of King Ren�, who had a short time previously left

  Florence and returned to France, to take possession with the idea,

  that he, having learned the manners and customs of Italy, would be

  able to govern the city; and also that this might give him an

  opportunity of undertaking the conquest of Naples, of which Ren�,

  John's father, had been deprived by Alfonso. John, therefore,

  proceeded to Genoa, where he was received as prince, and the

  fortresses, both of the city and the government, given up to him. This

  annoyed Alfonso, with the fear that he had brought upon himself too

  powerful an enemy. He was not, however, dismayed; but pursued his

  enterprise vigorously, and had led his fleet to Porto, below