Cooked: A Natural History of Transformation

by Michael Pollan

  MAKE THE LEAVEN

  The night before baking the bread, make a leaven. In a glass bowl, combine the whole-wheat and all-purpose flours with the water. Add 2 tablespoons of the starter and mix thoroughly. Cover with a towel and leave out overnight in a draft-free spot.

  MAKE THE BREAD

  The night before baking the bread, “soak” the whole-grain, all-purpose, and rye flours: In a large bowl, combine the whole-grain, all-purpose, and rye flours with 850 grams of the water, mixing with a spatula or by hand until there are no lumps or patches of dry flour remaining. (A recommended extra step: In the case of the whole-grain flour and the rye flour, pass them through a flour sifter to remove the larger bits of bran; reserve the larger bits in a small bowl for use later.) Cover the bowl with plastic wrap and leave out overnight in a draft-free spot. The reason for this step is to thoroughly moisten the whole-grain flours before the fermentation begins; this softens the bran (making for a more voluminous loaf) and begins the breakdown of the starches into sugars (deepening flavors and color).

  In the morning, test your leaven by dropping a tablespoon of it in warm water. If it floats, you’re all set. If not, you’ll probably want to add some yeast to the leaven as an insurance policy—mix 3½ grams (1 ⅛ teaspoons) of fast-acting yeast into 50 grams of warm water. After a few minutes, add to the bowl of leaven. It will seem alarmingly wet—the consistency of a thick batter. Don’t worry.

  Add about half of the leaven to the bowl with the wet dough; reserve the rest of the leaven as your starter going forward. (If you use commercial yeast, put aside half the leaven before adding it.) Mix the dough thoroughly and let rest for at least 20 and up to 45 minutes.

  Meanwhile, in a cup, mix the salt in the remaining 50 grams of the warm tap water. After the dough mixture has rested, add the salty water and work it in thoroughly by hand.

  BULK FERMENTING THE DOUGH

  This takes 4 to 5 hours, depending on the ambient temperature and the vigor of your starter. Every 45 to 60 minutes, give the dough a turn in the bowl—wet your dominant hand, work it down the side of the bowl, and bring up the mass of dough from the bottom, stretching it upward and then folding it over the top. Give the bowl a quarter turn, and repeat this action until you’ve completed at least one revolution of the bowl. These stretches will strengthen the gluten and fold air into the dough. Watch for the formation of air bubbles; smell and taste along the way. The dough is ready to be divided and shaped when it feels billowy and cohesive—it wants to stick to itself more than the bowl. It should smell mildly yeasty and slightly sour. If it smells distinctly sour, end bulk fermentation and proceed to the next step.

  DIVIDING THE DOUGH

  When you’re ready to shape, sprinkle a work surface with flour. Spill the dough out on the surface. Using a plastic dough scraper, divide the mass into 2 more or less equal halves. Shape these into globes, using your floured hands together with the scraper to rotate the dough against the work surface until it forms a ball with some surface tension. Cover the 2 globes with a towel and let them rest for 20 minutes.

  SHAPING THE DOUGH

  Using the scraper, flip one of the globes, which will have flattened somewhat, onto its back. Grab the edge of dough farthest from you with all your fingers, stretch it away from you, and then fold it back over the top. Do the same to the edge of dough closest to you, and then to each of the sides. You should have before you a rough rectangle of dough. Next, take each of the corners in turn, stretching and folding over the top. Now, cup your hands around the package of dough and roll it away from you until you have a short, taut cylinder, with the seams on the bottom.

  If you sifted the whole-grain flour, spread the reserved bran on a plate or baking sheet and gently roll the dough in it to cover. Sprinkle either rice flour or any remaining bran into the bottom of a large bowl and then place the round of dough in the bowl, top side down. (Use a proofing basket instead if you have one.) Do the same with the second loaf, giving it its own bowl.

  PROOFING

  This is the second fermentation. Cover the bowls with towels and let them rest in a warm spot for 2 to 3 hours, till the dough gets puffy again. (Alternatively, put the shaped loaves in the refrigerator for several hours or overnight; this will retard fermentation while continuing to build flavor. It’s not necessary to proof it again after refrigeration, but give it an hour or so at room temperature before baking.)

  BAKING

  Place the top and bottom of a Dutch oven (or a large ceramic casserole or combo cooker) on the center rack in the oven and preheat to 500°F.

  With kitchen mitts, carefully remove the bottom of the pot from the oven and set it on the stovetop. Turn the bowl (or basket) over the pot to drop the proofed loaf into it. Don’t worry if it doesn’t land squarely; it will straighten out. Now, take a single-edge razor blade (or a lame) and score the top of the loaf, in any pattern you like. But be decisive! Now take the top of the pot from the oven and place it over the pot to seal, then move the whole thing into the oven. Lower the temperature to 450°F and set a timer for 20 minutes.

  After 20 minutes, remove the top of the pot. The loaf will have doubled in volume and acquired a pale brown or tan color. Close the oven and give it another 23 to 25 minutes to bake with the top off. The loaf should now be a dark mahogany with a bit of blackening here and there, especially where it was scored. Remove the pot from the oven and the bread from the pot, using an oven mitt and a spatula. Tap it on the bottom, which should be very dark. A hollow percussive sound means the bread is properly cooked. If the bottom is pale and the sound is not percussive, return it to the oven for 5 more minutes.

  Set it on a rack to cool for a few hours. Whole-grain bread is usually at its best on day two and remains good for several days after that, kept in a paper (not plastic) bag.

  4. Earth

  Sauerkraut

  Active Time: 1 hour

  Total Time: 1 to 2 weeks, or longer

  This recipe is based on Sandor Katz’s version of sauerkraut, or “kraut-chi,” though it is more like a template for cabbage-based ferments than a formal recipe. For spices, you can add juniper berries, caraway seeds, and coriander for a more Old World kraut, or add ginger, garlic, and hot peppers for something more like kimchi. But do use some spice—they inhibit mold from forming.

  4 pounds cabbage (or a mixture of mostly cabbage, plus fruits and vegetables, such as apples, onions, daikon radish, carrots)

  6–8 teaspoons fine sea salt

  Spices (1½ teaspoons juniper berries, 1 tablespoon coriander seeds, or 1 tablespoon caraway seeds for Old World kraut, or whatever spices and quantities you like)

  One (½- to 1-gallon) wide-mouthed glass or ceramic container fitted with a lid, or two to three 1-quart containers, or a sauerkraut crock

  Thinly chop or shred the cabbage into roughly ¼-inch thick slices and place in a very large bowl or tub. Shredding the cabbage on a mandoline gives the best result. If using other fruits and vegetables, slice them to about the same thickness as the cabbage and add to the bowl. For odd-shaped vegetables like carrots, using a thick box grater is easiest. The rougher the cut, the better as more surface area is exposed to the salt.

  Add the salt (1½ to 2 teaspoons per pound of cabbage mixture) to the cabbage mixture, mixing it into the shredded leaves with your hands, squeezing the cabbage and pounding on the mixture as you go. (It’s best to start by adding 1 teaspoon of fine sea salt per pound and then add another half or whole teaspoon extra per pound if needed.) Within several minutes, the salt will begin drawing water from the cabbage leaves. Continue to squeeze, bruise, or pound the cabbage to speed up the process. You can also pl
ace a weight on the mixture to drive out liquid. Wait until the vegetables are dripping wet, like a sopping sponge. Taste the cabbage. It should taste salted but not salty. If it’s too salty, add more shredded cabbage or briefly rinse with water to remove. If it’s not salty enough, or not wet enough, add a little more salt. Add the spices, if using, and toss.

  Pack the mixture tightly in a glass jar or crock fitted with a lid that can hold at least 8 cups, making sure all the air is squeezed out and the vegetables are completely submerged in their liquid. (If you don’t have a large container, use two or three smaller containers, about 1 quart each in volume.) There should be at least 3 inches between the packed cabbage and the top of the jar. Push the vegetables down tightly using your fist. They should be covered in their liquid. Before sealing the jar, either weight the vegetables down with a small ceramic or glass jar or insert something nonreactive between the lid and the vegetables to keep them submerged in the liquid: a plastic bag filled with stones or Ping-Pong balls works well or lay a large cabbage, fig, or grape leaf over the shredded cabbage and weight that down with clean stones or other heavy nonreactive objects. There should be enough liquid to cover, but if not add a little water. (Cabbages can lose cell water depending on growing and storage conditions.) Any vegetables exposed to the air will rot. If surface molds form, scrape them away and remove discolored sauerkraut. The kraut may smell funky, like a gym locker, but it shouldn’t smell rotten. For the first few days, store at room temperature, ideally between 65°F and 75°F, then move to a cooler location, such as a basement. That’s it: The mixture will ferment on its own; the necessary microbes are already present on the leaves.

  If you’re making kraut in a sealed glass container, make sure to release the pressure every few days, especially the first couple of days, when bubbling will be most active. In a mason jar, you’ll know pressure is building when the metal top begins to bulge; open just enough to release the gas and reseal. Those old-timey glass crocks with the hinged tops held in place by a metal clasp work well since they will release pressure along their rubber gasket. Easiest of all is a ceramic crock designed for making sauerkraut. Available online in various sizes, these crocks have a water lock that releases bubbles of gas while keeping air out. If at any point water seeps out of the jar during fermentation and the cabbage mixture is not fully submerged in liquid, dissolve ½ teaspoon of fine sea salt in a cup of water. Add enough brine to keep the sauerkraut submerged in liquid.

  How long before the kraut is ready? It depends—on the ambient temperature, the amount of salt used, and the local population of microbes. Taste it after a week, then two weeks, and then weekly after that. When the level of sourness and crunchiness is to your liking, move your kraut to the refrigerator to put the breaks on the fermentation.

  VARIATION: To make a version of kimchi, replace the cabbage with Napa cabbage and Daikon radish; the cabbage can be sliced into half-inch rounds, and the daikon into quarter-inch rounds. Replace the sauerkraut spice mixture with:

  4 cloves minced or crushed garlic (or more, to taste)

  4-inch piece fresh ginger, sliced (or more, to taste)

  2 tablespoons powdered red pepper (or more, to taste)

  2 tablespoons coriander seeds (or half a bunch of fresh cilantro, roughly chopped)

  4 green onions

  The rest of the process is the same as for sauerkraut.

  Appendix II:

  A Short Shelf of Books on Cooking

  These are the cookbooks and books on cooking I’ve found indispensable and to which I return again and again for explanation and inspiration.

  COOKING IN GENERAL

  The Art of Simple Food, by Alice Waters

  The Cambridge World History of Food, edited by Kenneth F. Kiple and Kriemhild Coneè Ornelas

  Catching Fire: How Cooking Made Us Human, by Richard Wrangham

  The Essence of Cookery, by Karl Friedrich von Rumohr

  An Everlasting Meal: Cooking with Economy and Grace, by Tamar Adler

  A History of Cooks and Cooking, by Michael Symons

  How to Cook Everything, by Mark Bittman

  On Food and Cooking: The Science and Lore of the Kitchen, by Harold McGee

  FIRE

  The Barbecue! Bible, by Steven Raichlen

  The Magic of Fire: Hearth Cooking, by William Rubel

  Seven Fires: Grilling the Argentine Way, by Francis Mallmann

  Smokestack Lightning: Adventures in the Heart of Barbecue Country, by Lolis Eric Elie; photographs by Frank Stewart

  WATER

  Braise: A Journey Through International Cuisine, by Daniel Boulud

  Mediterranean Clay Pot Cooking, by Paula Wolfert

  A Platter of Figs and Other Recipes, by David Tanis

  Soffritto: Tradition and Innovation in Tuscan Cooking, by Benedetta Vitali

  Something from the Oven: Reinventing Dinner in 1950s America, by Laura Shapiro

  The Taste for Civilization: Food, Politics, and Civil Society, by Janet A. Flammang

  AIR

  The Bread Baker’s Apprentice: Mastering the Art of Extraordinary Bread, by Peter Reinhart

  The Bread Builders: Hearth Loaves and Masonry Ovens, by Daniel Wing and Alan Scott

  English Bread and Yeast Cookery, by Elizabeth David

  Peter Reinhart’s Whole Grain Breads, by Peter Reinhart

  Tartine Bread, by Chad Robertson

  EARTH

  The Art of Fermentation, by Sandor Katz

  Brewing Classic Styles: 80 Winning Recipes Anyone Can Brew, by John J. Palmer and Jamil Zainasheff

  How to Brew: Everything You Need to Know to Brew Beer Right the First Time, by John J. Palmer

  Microcosmos: Four Billion Years of Microbial Evolution, by Lynn Margulis and Dorion Sagan

  Uncorking the Past: The Quest for Wine, Beer, and Other Alcoholic Beverages, by Patrick E. McGovern

  Wild Fermentation, by Sandor Katz

  Selected Sources

  Listed below, by chapter, are the principal works referred to in the text, as well as others that supplied me with facts or influenced my thinking. Web site URLs are current as of September 2012. Any articles of mine cited here are available at michaelpollan.com.

  INTRODUCTION: WHY COOK?

  I explored the “Cooking Paradox” in a 2009 essay for the New York Times Magazine:

  Pollan, Michael. “Out of the Kitchen, Onto the Couch.” New York Times Magazine, August 2, 2009.

  ON COOKING AS A DEFINING HUMAN ACTIVITY

  Flammang, Janet A. The Taste for Civilization: Food, Politics, and Civil Society. Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press, 2009. An important book, by a political scientist, on the gender politics, and implications for civic life, of “food work.”

  Lévi-Strauss, Claude. The Origin of Table Manners. New York: Harper & Row, 1978. See especially the chapter titled “A Treatise on Culinary Anthropology.”

  ———. The Raw and the Cooked. New York: Harper & Row, 1975.

  Wrangham, Richard, et al. “The Raw and the Stolen: Cooking and the Ecology of Human Origins.” Current Anthropology (1999): 40, 567–94.

  Wrangham, Richard W. Catching Fire: How Cooking Made Us Human. New York: Basic, 2009.

  ON THE DIVISION OF LABOR AND SELF-RELIANCE

  Berry, Wendell. “The Pleasures of Eating,” in What Are People For? Berkeley: Counterpoint, 2010. My discussion of the division of labor and self-reliance owes a large debt to Wendell Berry’s entire body of work.

  Pollan, Michael. “Why Bother?” New York Times Magazine, April 20, 2008.

  Zagat, Tim and Nina. “The Burger and Frie
s Recovery.” Wall Street Journal, January 25, 2011.

  ON THE CONTINUING RELEVANCE OF THE CLASSICAL ELEMENTS

  Bachelard, Gaston. Air and Dreams. Dallas: Dallas Institute, 2011.

  ———. Earth and Reveries of Will. Dallas: Dallas Institute, 2002.

  ———. The Psychoanalysis of Fire. Boston: Beacon, 1964.

  ———. Water and Dreams. Dallas: Pegasus Foundation, 1983.

  Macauley, David. Elemental Philosophy: Earth, Air, Fire and Water as Environmental Ideas. New York: SUNY Press, 2010.