Seven Demon Stories from Medieval Japan

by Noriko T. Reider

  cubines. However, in this system the status of the official wife was secure,

  unlike the tsumadoi [uxorilocal] or mukotori [son-in-law adopted by wife’s

  family] marriages of the Heian period, where the wife’s status was precari-

  ous” (Wakita, Women in Medieval Japan 38).

  The Heian period (794–1185) was a polygamous society; although

  one wife was often recognized, albeit informally, as the first among equals

  in the stable of wives, that wife’s status was not guaranteed. Frequently,

  when a husband stopped visiting, the marriage was dissolved. In contrast,

  the existence of the medieval household system rested on the principle

  of monogamy (Wakita, Women in Medieval Japan 21). As the patriarchal sys-

  tem became solidified, the marriage system changed, too. It shifted from

  tsumadoi (uxorilocal) or mukotori (son-in-law adopted by his wife’s family) to

  yometori-kon, or patrilocal: “Yometori did not become the general practice

  until the medieval period” (Wakita, Women in Medieval Japan 128). In the Tale

  of Amewakahiko, the heroine leaves the familiarity of her parents’ home to

  Conclusion

  249

  live in her husband’s household. The story seems to reflect a matrimonial

  proclivity to a vililocal arrangement as the heroine moves from her parents’

  house eventually to her husband’s house in the sky.

  For medieval young women of high society who were restricted in many

  ways from moving about, the Tale of Amewakahiko was perhaps a thrilling

  adventure story, as the heroine travels into the unknown sky in search of

  her husband. The oni–father-in-law who resides in the sky, in a beautiful

  residence in serene surroundings, was originally Bontennō (Brahma). But to

  the medieval audience, whether the oni resided in the sky or underground

  did not seem to matter much, as discussed in chapter 5. Tale of Amewakahiko

  is a tale that explains an origin of Tanabata, now the firmly established cus-

  toms in Japan.

  Decentralized power during the Muromachi period forced traditional

  institutions, be it central government or religious establishments, to sustain

  their own political and economic viability alone. Clergymen affiliated with

  certain sects had to actively propagate the merit of their schools’ survival.

  Another conspicuous promotion of a Buddhist school is Tsukumogami ki

  (The Record of Tool Specters). Incorporating the folk belief that when sen-

  tient beings become very old they turn into oni, the author of Tsukumogami

  ki makes insentient beings animated and mischievous when they become

  old. The discarded old tools then attack people out of vengeance. Making

  the most of puns and parodies, the narrator emphasizes the miraculous

  power of Shingon esoteric Buddhism in which even the tools that turned

  into oni can be enlightened, let alone ordinary human beings. “If you wish

  to know the deepest meaning, quickly escape from the net of exoteric

  Buddhism and enter Shingon esoteric Buddhism,” the narrator says. This,

  incidentally, could have made people buy new tools.

  An examination of oni stories from medieval Japan makes one won-

  der what oni are. oni often seem to be used as a kind of political and eco-

  nomic tool—to highlight the heroes’ prowess or religious efficacy. When

  one considers the nature of otogizōshi, short tales written for the purpose

  of both entertainment and moral or religious edification, one understands

  their overt and covert pedantic elements. To put someone or an entity in

  a positive light, it is easier to cast another (or oni) as a villain. This is per-

  haps a universal phenomenon, not necessarily limited to medieval Japan.

  In medieval Japan, the oni or disenfranchised entity was defined as real—a

  potential threat to allies. The impact on the audience, both oral and tex-

  tual, of that time must have been somber indeed. While there are differ-

  ences in perception and beliefs as environments have changed, present-

  day readers would find some commonalities in the behaviors and beliefs.

  250

  Conclusion

  As Komatsu Kazuhiko writes, medieval tales even speak to contemporary

  humanity; that is, to study the oni in Japanese folklore is to study human-

  kind ( Yōkaigaku shinkō 12)

  nOte

  1. For a Japanese text, see Nakada 194–96; for an English translation, see Nakamura ,

  Miraculous Stories from the Japanese Buddhist Tradition 194–96.

  Japanese and Chinese Names and Terms

  a

  Bakuya 莫耶 (Ch. Mo Ye)

  A 阿

  Ban dainagon ekotoba 伴大納言絵詞

  Abe no Nakamaro 阿倍仲麻呂

  bankoku 蕃国

  Abe no Seimei 安倍晴明

  bansei ikkei 万世一系

  agamono 贖物

  Bensei 弁正

  Agon 阿含

  Bishamonten 毘沙門天

  Akazome Emon 赤染衛門

  biwa 琵琶

  Akiyoshi 秋好

  Bonten 梵天

  Amaterasu 天照大神

  Bontennō 梵天王

  Amenomurakumo no tsurugi 天叢雲

  bosatsu-kai 菩薩界

  剣

  Bosuton Bijutsukan Nihon bijutsu no

  Amewakahiko 天稚彦

  shihō ボストン美術館日本美術

  Amewakahiko monogatari emaki 天稚彦

  の至宝

  物語絵巻

  bugei no ie 武芸の家

  Amewakahiko sōshi 天稚彦草子

  buki no ie 武器の家

  Amewakamiko 天稚御子

  bukkai 佛界

  Annam 安南

  Busei (Ch. Wu Cheng) 武成

  Anokutara sanmiyaku sannbodai no ho-

  bushi 武士

  toketachi waga tatsu soma ni myōga

  Butchō Sonshō Dhāranī 佛頂尊勝陀

  arase tamae 阿耨多羅三藐三菩

  羅尼

  提の仏たちわが立つ杣に冥加あ

  らせたまへ

  Anshi

  C

  安子

  Aratarō 荒太郎

  Chang’an 長安

  Aru tokoro no zenbu Yoshio no Tomo

  Chikamatsu Monzaemon 近松門左

  no dainagon no ryō o miruko-

  衛門

  to 或る所の膳部義雄の伴の大

  chikushō-kai 畜生界

  納言の霊を見る語

  Chinjufu shogun 鎮守府将軍

  Ashikaga Takauji 足利尊氏

  Chion’in wakan rōeishū kenbun 知恩院本

  Awata no Mahito 粟田真人

  和漢朗詠集見聞

  Ayuwang Temple 阿育王寺

  Chōgen 重源

  Azuma kagami 吾妻鏡

  Chōju daisen’ō nyorai 長寿大仙王如

  来

  Chōtoku 長徳

  B

  chūdai hosshō 中台法性

  Bai Juyi 白居易

  Chūgaishō 中外抄

  Bao Zhi 宝誌

  chūnagon 中納言

  252

  Japanese and Chinese Names and Terms

  Chūnagon Ki no Haseo no ie ni

  Emperor Murakami 村上天皇

  arawaruru inu no koto 中納言紀

  Emperor Reizei 冷泉天皇

  長谷雄の家に顕るる狗の語

  Emperor Seiwa 清和天皇

  Cloistered Emperor
GoShirakawa 後

  Emperor Shenzong 神宗

  白河法皇

  Emperor Shōkō 称光天皇

  Emperor Shōmu v聖武天皇

  Emperor Sujin 崇神天皇

  D

  Emperor Sutoku 崇徳天皇

  dai ni no shizen 第二の自然

  Emperor Takakura 高倉天皇

  Daiba bon 提婆品

  Emperor Tenmu 天武天皇

  Daidairi 大内裏

  Emperor Wu 武帝

  daihonzan 大本山

  Emperor Wu of Liang 梁武帝

  Daiitoku 大威徳

  Emperor Xiaozong 孝宗

  Daijō-itokuten 太政威徳天

  Emperor Xuanzong (Jp. Gensō) 玄宗

  Daiku to Oniroku だいくとおにろく

  皇帝

  dairokuten no maō 第六天の魔王

  Empress Shōshi 彰子 (中宮) (or

  Daoshou 道州

  Jōtōmon-in)

  Dazai shōgen 太宰少監

  Empress Shōtoku 称徳天皇 (or

  Dazaifu 太宰府

  Empress Kōken 孝謙天皇)

  dengaku 田楽

  Empress Teishi 定子 (皇后)

  Dengyō Daishi 伝教大師

  Empress Wu Zetian (Jp. Busokuten) 武

  denshi-byō 伝尸病

  則天

  En Shito 袁司徒 (Ch. Yuan Situ)

  Endō, line 遠藤流

  e

  engaku-kai 縁覚界

  Eastern Han 東漢

  Engishiki 延喜式

  Ebisu 恵比寿

  Enryakuji 延暦寺

  eboshi 烏帽子

  edo 穢土

  Eiga monogatari 栄華物語

  f

  Eiseibunko 永青文庫

  Fu Sōshin ki 付捜神記

  Eishin 栄心

  Fudō myōō 不動明王

  Eiso 永祚

  Fudō riyaku engi 不動利益縁起

  emaki 絵巻

  Fuji Daibosatsu 富士大菩薩

  Emperor Antoku 安徳天皇

  Fujiwara no Akihira 藤原明衡

  Emperor GoHanazono 後花園天皇

  Fujiwara no Hidesato 藤原秀郷

  Emperor GoIchijō 後一条天皇

  Fujiwara no Hōshō (or Yasumasa) 藤

  Emperor GoKomatsu 後小松天皇

  原保昌

  Emperor GoReizei 後冷泉天皇

  Fujiwara no Hōshō gekka rōtekizu 藤

  Emperor GoSuzaku 後朱雀天皇

  原保昌月下弄笛図

  Emperor GoToba, Retired 後鳥羽院

  Fujiwara no Kaneie 藤原兼家

  Emperor Ichijō 一条天皇

  Fujiwara no Kintō 藤原公任

  Emperor Ingyō 允恭天皇

  Fujiwara no Korechika 藤原伊周

  Emperor Jinmu 神武天皇

  Fujiwara no Kosemaro 藤原巨勢麻呂

  Emperor Keikō 景行天皇

  Fujiwara no Michikane 藤原道兼

  Emperor Konoe 近衛天皇

  Fujiwara no Michinaga 藤原道長

  Japanese and Chinese Names and Terms

  253

  Fujiwara no Michitaka 藤原道隆

  gochi 五智

  Fujiwara no Michitsuna 藤原道綱

  Gōdanshō 江談抄

  Fujiwara no Morosuke 藤原師輔

  gohō dōji 護法童子

  Fujiwara no Motokata 藤原元方

  Gojō 五常

  Fujiwara no Munetada 藤原致忠

  Goshū 梧楸

  Fujiwara no Sanekane 藤原実兼

  Goshūgen otogi bunko 御祝言御伽文庫

  Fujiwara no Sanenari 藤原実成

  GoShūi wakashū 後拾遺和歌集

  Fujiwara no Sanesuke 藤原実資

  Gōzanze myōō 降三世明王

  Fujiwara no Sumitomo 藤原純友

  gozu 牛頭

  Fujiwara no Tadachika 藤原忠親

  Gukanshō 愚管抄

  Fujiwara no Tadazane 藤原忠実

  gunji kizoku 軍事貴族

  Fujiwara no Takaie 藤原隆家

  gusokukai 具足戒

  Fujiwara no Tameie 藤原為家

  Gyokuyōshū 玉葉集

  Fujiwara no Tokihira 藤原時平

  Fujiwara no Tomoakira 藤原知章

  Fujiwara no Yasumasa no ason nusubito

  h

  no Hakamadare ni au koto 藤原

  Hachikazuki はちかづき

  保昌の朝臣盗人の袴垂に値ふ語

  Fujiwara no Yorimichi

  Hachiman sanjo 八幡三所

  藤原頼通

  Hakamadare 袴垂

  Fukū Kongō 不空金剛

  Hakamadare, Sekiyama ni shite sorajini o

  Fukū Sanzō 不空三蔵

  shite hito o korosu koto 袴垂関

  Funaokayama 船岡山

  山に於て虚死をして人を殺す語

  Furuna 富留那

  Hakudō 伯道

  Fushiminomiya Haruhito 伏見宮治仁

  Hakui (Ch. Boyi) 伯夷

  Fushiminomiya Sadafusa 伏見宮貞成

  Hanayo no hime 花世の姫

  Fusō ryakki 扶桑略記

  hanayone 花米

  Fuyusame 冬雨

  Hankai (Ch. Fan K’uai) 樊膾

  harakake 腹掛け

  G

  Haruyoshi 春好

  Hase Kannon 長谷観音

  gaki-kai 餓鬼界

  Hase Temple 長谷寺

  Gan Bao 干宝

  Hasedera genki 長谷寺験記

  Gan Jiang 干将

  Haseo zōshi 長谷雄草紙

  Ganjin (Ch. Jianzhen) 鑑真

  Heian 平安

  Gao tang fu 高唐賦

  Heiji Disturbance 平治の乱

  Gaun nikkenroku 臥雲日件録

  Heike monogatari 平家物語

  Genbō sōjō Tō ni watarite Hossō o

  Henge daimyōjin 変化大明

  tsutaeru koto 玄肪僧正唐に亘り

  Higekiri 鬚切

  て法相を伝ふる語

  hijō 非情

  Genji monogatari 源氏物語

  Hijō jōbutsu emaki 非情成仏絵巻

  Genji no chakuryū 源氏の嫡流

  Hikime 匹女

  Genji no yurai 源氏のゆらひ

  Hiko imasu no miko 日子坐王

  Genpei War 源平合戦

  Hikoboshi 彦星

  Genshin 源信

  Hikohohodemi no Mikoto emaki 彦火火出

  gesaku 戯作

  見尊絵巻

  go 碁

  Hin River (Ch. Pin) 頻川

  254

  Japanese and Chinese Names and Terms

  hiragana ひらがな

  J

  Hirohira, Prince 広平親王

  Jakengokudai 邪見極大

  hitogata 人形

  Ji denshibyō hiden 治伝屍病秘伝

  Hiyoshi Sannō Shrine 日吉山王神社

  Jie drum 羯鼓

  Hizamaru 膝丸

  Jien 慈円

  Hizen 肥前

  jigoku-kai 地獄界

  Hokekyō jikidanshō 法華経直談鈔

  jikidanmono 直談物

  Hokekyō jurin shūyōshō 法華経鷲林拾

  jikkai 十界

  葉鈔

  Jikkinshō 十訓抄

  Hoki naiden 簠簋内伝

  Jikokuten 持国天

  Hoki shō 簠簋抄

  jimyō shicchi 持明悉地

  Hokkai taishōō nyorai 法界体性王

  jin-kai 人界

  如来

  Jokunsho 女訓書

  Honchō shinsen den 本朝神仙伝

  Jōkyū Disturbance 承久の乱

  hongaku shisō 本覚思想

  Jōkyūki 承久記
<
br />   honji 本地

  jorō 女郎

  Hosokawa Gracia Tama 細川ガラシ

  jōrō 上臈

  ャたま

  jorōgumo 女郎蜘蛛

  Hossō sect 法相宗

  Jorōgumo no kotowari 絡新婦の理

  hyakki yagyō 百鬼夜行, 百器夜行

  jōruri 浄瑠璃

  hyakki yagyō emaki 百鬼夜行絵巻

  Jōtōmon-in 上東門院 (or Empress

  hyaku hachi no bonnō 百八煩悩

  Shōshi)

  Juchūkō 十炷香

  i

  Jukeini 寿桂尼

  jūni innen 十二因縁

  Ibukiyama 伊吹山

  Jūni-sama 十二様

  Ichijō Kanera 一条兼良

  Jūnishinshō 十二神将

  Ichiren nyūdō 一連入道

  Jūrasetsunyo 十羅刹女

  igo 囲碁

  Imagawa bunka 今川文化

  Imagawa Yoshimoto 今川義元

  k

  Intoku honshōō nyorai 因徳本性王

  Kachō Fūgetsu 花鳥風月

  如来

  kagura 神楽

  Inuyasha 犬夜叉

  Kaguraoka 神楽岡

  In’yōzakki 陰陽雑記

  Kaifūsō 懐風藻

  iro 色

  Kaikaku 戒覚

  Ise monogatari 伊勢物語

  iteki

  Kaiō 懐王 (Ch. King Huai)

  夷狄

  Iwashimizu Hachimangū

  kairyūō 海龍王

  岩清水八

  kami (deity) 神

  幡宮

  Izumi Shikibu

  kami (hair) 髪

  和泉式部

  Izumo fudoki

  Kan’ei shoke kakeizu-den 寛永諸家家系

  出雲風土記

  図伝

  Kanhasshū tsunagiuma 関八州繋馬

  Kanmon nikki 看聞日記

  Kannon 観音

  Japanese and Chinese Names and Terms

  255

  Kannon kyō 観音経

  Kitano tenmangū tenjin 北野天満宮

  Kanpaku denka 関白殿下

  天神

  Kanshō (Ch. Gan Jiang) 干将

  Kitayama 北山

  Kanzeon bosatsu fumonhon 観世音

  Kiyohara no Munenobu 清原致信

  菩薩普門品

  Kōbō Daishi 弘法大師

  Kasen’en 迦栴延

  Kōbō daishi gyōjō ekotoba 弘法大師行状

  Katori-bon 香取本

  絵詞

  Katsuraki 葛城

  Kobun sensei 古文先生

  Kawachi Genji 河内源氏

  Kōchi 広智

  Kawatake Mokuami 河竹黙阿弥

  Kochō 胡蝶

  kegai 化外

  Kōen 皇円

  Kegon 華厳

  Kōfuku-ji 興福寺

  Keiun 慶運

  Kōhō 康保

  kenai 化内

  Koikawa Harumachi 恋川春町

  Kenbunkei rōeishū kochūshakubon 見聞系

  Kojidan 古事談

  朗詠集古注釈本

  Kojiki 古事記

  Kengyū 牽牛