Graphic Design

by Ellen Lupton

  Pinterest Grid

  Google Image Search: Field

  New Realities of the Page The utilitarian density of the web has influenced design for print, as seen in the book Making Design, published by Cooper Hewitt, Smithsonian Design Museum (2015). Irma Boom.

  The End of White Space Images lock together in a compact geometry in the pages of Harun Farocki Diagrams, edited and designed by Benedikt Reichenbach, Verlag der Buchhandlung Walther König (2014).

  Crazy Quilt Mixing and matching patterns is an ancient enterprise. Here, a mix is made with a palette of digital elements that communicate with each other. Jeremy Botts, MFA Studio.

  Pattern

  The principles discoverable in the works of the past belong to us; not so the results. Owen Jones

  The creative evolution of ornament spans all of human history. Shared ways to generate pattern are found in cultures around the world. Universal principles underlie diverse styles and icons that speak to particular times and traditions.

  This chapter shows how to build complex patterns around core concepts. Dots, stripes, and grids provide the architecture behind an infinite range of designs. By composing a single element in different schemes, the designer can create endless variations, building complexity around a logical core.

  Styles and motifs of pattern-making evolve within and among cultures, and they move in and out of fashion. They travel from place to place and time to time, carried along like viruses by the forces of commerce and the restless desire for variety.

  In the twentieth century, modern designers avoided ornate detail in favor of minimal adornment. In 1908, the Viennese design critic Adolf Loos famously conflated “Ornament and Crime.” He linked the human lust for decoration with primitive tattoos and criminal behavior.1

  Yet despite the modern distaste for ornament, the structural analysis of pattern is central to modern design theory. In 1856, Owen Jones created his monumental Grammar of Ornament, documenting decorative vocabularies from around the world.2 Jones’s book encouraged Western designers to copy and reinterpret “exotic” motifs from Asia and Africa, but it also helped them recognize principles that unite an endless diversity of forms.

  Today, surface pattern is creating a vibrant discourse. The rebirth of ornament is linked to the revival of craft in architecture, products, and interiors, as well as to scientific views of how life emerges from the interaction of simple rules.

  The decorative forms presented in this chapter embrace a mix of formal structure and organic irregularity. They meld individual authorship with rule-based systems, and they merge formal abstraction with personal narrative. By understanding how to produce patterns, designers learn how to weave complexity out of elementary structures, participating in the world’s most ancient and prevalent artistic practice.

  The secret to success in all ornament is the production of a broad general effect by the repetition of a few simple elements. Owen Jones

  Dots, Stripes, and Grids

  In the nineteenth century, designers began analyzing how patterns are made. They found that nearly any pattern arises from three basic forms: isolated elements, linear elements, and the criss-crossing or interaction of the two.1 Various terms have been used to name these elementary conditions, but we will call them dots, stripes, and grids.

  Any isolated form can be considered a dot, from a simple circle to an ornate flower. A stripe, in contrast, is a linear path. It can consist of a straight, solid line, or it can be built up from smaller elements (dots) that link together visually to form a line.

  These two basic structures, dots and stripes, interact to form grids. As a grid takes shape, it subverts the identity of the separate elements in favor of a larger texture. Indeed, creating that larger texture is what pattern design is all about. Imagine a field of wildflowers. It is filled with spectacular individual organisms that contribute to an overall system.

  From Point to Line to Grid As dots move together, they form into lines and other shapes (while still being dots). As stripes cross over each other and become grids, they cut up the field into new figures, which function like new dots or new stripes. Some of the most visually fascinating patterns result from figure/ground ambiguity. The identity of a form can oscillate between being a figure (dot, stripe) to being a ground or support for another, opposing figure.

  Repeating Elements

  How does a simple form—a dot, a square, a flower, a cross—populate a surface to create a pattern that calms, pleases, or surprises us?

  Whether rendered by hand, machine, or code, a pattern results from repetition. An army of dots can be regulated by a rigid geometric grid, or it can randomly swarm across a surface via irregular handmade marks. It can spread out in a continuous veil or concentrate its forces in pockets of intensity.

  In every instance, however, patterns follow some repetitive principle, whether dictated by a mechanical grid, a digital algorithm, or the physical rhythm of a crafts-person’s tool as it works along a surface.

  In the series of pattern studies developed here and on the following pages, a simple lozenge form is used to build designs of varying complexity. Experiments of this kind can be performed with countless base shapes, yielding an endless range of individual results.

  One Element, Many Patterns The basic element in these patterns is a lozenge shape. Based on the orientation, proximity, scale, and color of the lozenges, they group into overlapping lines, forming a nascent grid. Jeremy Botts, MFA Studio.

  One Element, Many Patterns In this series of designs, the lozenge shape functions as a dot, the primitive element at the core of numerous variations. This oblong dot combines with other dots to form quatrefoils (a new super-dot) as well as lines.

  As lozenges of common color or orientation begin to associate with each other visually, additional figures take shape across the surface. Jeremy Botts, MFA Studio.

  Changing Color, Scale, and Orientation Altering the color contrast between elements or changing the overall scale of the pattern transforms its visual impact. Color shifts can be uniform across the surface, or they can take place in gradients or steps.

  Turning elements on an angle or changing their scale also creates a sense of depth and motion. New figures emerge as the lozenge rotates and repeats. Jeremy Botts, MFA Studio.

  Iconic Patterns Here, traditional pattern structures have been populated with images that have personal significance for the designer: popsicles, bombs, bungee cords, yellow camouflage, and slices of bright green cake. The preceding single tiles can be repeated into larger patterns, as shown following. Spence Holman, MFA Studio.

  Regular and Irregular Interesting pattern designs often result from a mix of regular and irregular forces as well as abstract and recognizable imagery. Here, regimented rows of icons overlap to create dense crowds as well as orderly battalions. Yong Seuk Lee, MFA Studio.

  Random Repeat These patterns appear highly irregular, yet they are composed of repeating tiles. To make this kind of pattern, the designer needs to make the left and right edges and the top and bottom edges match up with those of an identical tile. Anything can take place in the middle of the tile. The tiles shown here are square, but they could be rectangles, diamonds, or any other interlocking shape. Yong Seuk Lee, MFA Studio.

  Grid as Matrix An infinite number of patterns can be created from a common grid. In the simplest patterns, each cell is turned on or off. Larger figures take shape as neighboring clusters fill in. More complex patterns occur when the grid serves to locate forms without dictating their outlines or borders. Jason Okutake, MFA Studio.

  Code-Based Patterns

  Every pattern follows a rule. Defining rules with computer code allows the designer to create variations by changing the input to the system. The designer creates the rule, but the end result may be unexpected.

  The patterns shown here were designed using Processing, the open-source computer language created for designers and visual artists. All the patterns are built around the basic form of a binary tree
, a structure in which every node yields no more than two offspring. New branches appear with each iteration of the program.

  The binary tree form has been repeated, rotated, inverted, connected, and overlapped to generate a variety of pattern elements, equivalent to “tiles” in a traditional design. By varying the inputs to the code, the designer created four different tiles, which she joined together in Photoshop to produce a larger repeating pattern. The principle is no different from that used in many traditional ornamental designs, but the process has been automated, yielding a different kind of density.

  Vary the Input Four different base elements were created by varying the input to the code. The base “tiles” are joined together to create a repeat pattern; new figures emerge where the tiles come together, just as in traditional ornament. Yeohyun Ahn, Interactive Media II. James Ravel, faculty.

  1. Adolf Loos, Ornament and Crime: Selected Essays (Riverside, CA: Ariadne Press, 1998).

  2. Owen Jones, The Grammar of Ornament (London: Day and Son, 1856).

  1. Our scheme for classifying ornament is adapted from Archibald Christie, Traditional Methods of Pattern Designing; An Introduction to the Study of the Decorative Art (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1910).

  Map of Influences This alluring diagram by designer and artist Marian Bantjes describes her visual influences, which range from medieval and Celtic lettering, to baroque and rococo ornament, to Swiss typography and American psychedelia. Those diverse influences come alive in the flowing, filigreed lines of the piece. Marian Bantjes.

  Diagram

  In emphasizing evidential quality and beauty, I also want to move the practices of analytical design far away from the practices of propaganda, marketing, graphic design, and commercial art. Edward R. Tufte

  A diagram is a graphic representation of a structure, situation, or process. Diagrams can depict the anatomy of a creature, the hierarchy of a corporation, or the flow of ideas. Diagrams allow us to see relationships that would not come forward in a straight list of numbers or a verbal description.

  Many of the visual elements and phenomena described in this book—from point, line, and plane to scale, color, hierarchy, layers, and more—converge in the design of diagrams. In the realm of information graphics, the aesthetic role of these elements remains important, but something else occurs as well. Graphic marks and visual relationships take on specific meanings, coded within the diagram to depict numerical increments, relative size, temporal change, structural links, and other conditions.

  The great theorist of information design is Edward R. Tufte, who has been publishing books on this subject since 1983. Tufte finds a certain kind of beauty in the visual display of data—a universal beauty grounded in the laws of nature and the mind’s ability to comprehend them.1

  Tufte has called for removing the practice of information design from the distorting grasp of propaganda and graphic design. He argues that a chart or diagram should employ no metaphoric distractions or excessive flourishes (what he has called “chart junk”), but should stay within the realm of objective observation.

  Tufte’s purist point of view is profound and compelling, but it may be overly restrictive. Information graphics do have a role to play in the realm of expressive and editorial graphics. The language of diagrams has yielded a rich and evocative repertoire within contemporary design. In editorial contexts, diagrams often function to illuminate and explain complex ideas. They can be clean and reductive or richly expressive, creating evocative pictures that reveal surprising relationships and impress the eye with the sublime density and grandeur of a body of data.

  Many of the examples developed in this chapter are rigorous but not pure. Some pieces use diagrams to depict personal histories, a process that forces the designer to develop systematic ways to represent subjective experience. Such an approach is seen in the extravagant autobiographical diagram presented on the page opposite, by Marian Bantjes. Her map does not aim to convey evidence in a strictly scientific way, but rather uses analytical thinking to unleash a language that is both personal and universal, building complexity around basic structures.

  Making Connections

  A network, also called a graph, is a set of connections among nodes or points.1 There are various ways to connect the nodes in a network, resulting in different kinds of organization. Centralized networks include pyramids and trees, where all power issues from a common point. A decentralized network has a spine with radiating elements, as in an interstate highway system. A distributed network has node-to-node relationships with no spine and no center. The Internet is a distributed network peppered with concentrated nodes of connectivity.

  Networks are everywhere—not just in technology, but throughout nature and society. A food chain, a city plan, and the pathway of a disease are all networks that can be described graphically with points and lines.

  Decentralized Network This snapshot of the World Wide Web (detail) shows the connections among servers. A relatively small number of hubs dominate global traffic. Courtesy Lumeta Corp. © 2005 Lumeta Corp.

  Centralized Kelly Horigan

  Centralized Lindsay Orlowski

  Decentralized Lindsay Orlowski

  Distributed Kelly Horigan

  Designing Networks In this project, designers connect a grid of dots with lines, producing designs that reflect different types of networks: centralized, decentralized, and distributed. Graphic Design II. Ellen Lupton, faculty.

  Overlapping Relationships People don’t fall into tidy categories. Any individual can have many identities: parent, child, professional, fan, taxpayer, and so on.

  In the project shown here, students were given a list of designers and design firms who work in different fields (graphic design, architecture, and new media) and who produce different kinds of projects (buildings, websites, products, print, and so on). The list also ranked people according to the size of their firms (from single practitioners to large corporations). The design challenge was to represent these overlapping categories visually, using typography, scale, color, line, and other cues to indicate connections and differences.

  Some of the solutions use dots of varying size to indicate scale or to mark points on a conceptual map. Others change the size of the typography to indicate the scale. Overlapping planes or crossing lines were used to indicate areas of overlap. This problem can be applied to any collection of objects, from a grocery list to categories of music or art. Graphic Design II. Ellen Lupton, faculty.

  Alexandra Matzner

  Lindsay Orlowski

  Yuta Sakane

  Kelly Horigan

  Big Content This ambitious project challenges designers to organize a diverse array of content (text and diagrams) within a long, compressed banner. Designers explore principles of grid, hierarchy, color, and flow in order to create effective layouts. Left to right: Nicolas Kubail Kalousdian, Bonnie Silverman, Shiraz Gallab, Typography II. Ellen Lupton, faculty.

  Biodiagram In this project designers represent one facet of their lives according to a clear conceptual and visual framework. Form, color, and configuration must grow out of the hierarchy and nature of the content. Graduate Typography. Jennifer Cole Phillips, faculty.

  Social Network This diagram details a complex array of Facebook activity for the month of August. In charting data such as likes, posts, and shares, the designer creates a snapshot of his social network and proclivities. Winner of a design excellence award from Print Magazine. Hieu Tran.

  Train Tracking This diagram charts the seven shifting dialects encountered on a single train trip through India. The tiny type captures and records the towns traversed along the way, while the larger-level native changes by region. Hitesh Singhal.

  Mercurial Moods This simple diagram charts the upward and downward trajectory of the designer’s well-being based on specific forces that positively and negatively affect her world. Kajsa Nichols-Smith.

  Fiber-enriched This intricate diagram dissects the fiber content of this designer’s wardrobe
and analyzes it according to a carefully articulated system of criteria. Wenji Lu.

  Color Snapshot A complex spectrum of color is mapped across every item in this designer’s wardrobe. Clothing type is further broken down and classified by category and quantity. Tiffany Small.

  Visualizing Marathon Launched in 2010 by visualizing.org, these annual marathons began in New York City as on-site twenty-four-hour student competitions, expanded to other on-site venues in major cities around the world, and finally invited global remote participation. Participants work in teams to visually illuminate given themes.

  Cause + Effect Twenty teams from eight design schools were challenged to visualize the impact of humanity’s footprint on Spaceship Earth at the inaugural Visualizing Marathon: a 24-hour student data visualization competition. MICA sent fourteen students to New York City to compete in the event and swept the competition, winning first place and honorable mention.