Impaired functioning of the amygdala may confer other deficits on psychopaths including compromised capacities for learning through aversive conditioning. The amygdala represents the neural structure, which is critically involved in the process of aversive conditioning (LaBar & LeDoux, 1996; Phillips & LeDoux, 1992), that is, the process by which an association is formed between a neutral stimulus and an aversive stimulus, such that the neutral stimulus acquires the capacity to elicit an aversion response. Neuroimaging-based experiments have likewise demonstrated that the amygdala is central to the formation of conditioned emotional responses in humans (Büchel & Dolan, 2000; Büchel, Morris, Dolan, & Friston 1998).
Studies have demonstrated that convicted psychopaths have a compromised ability to make aversive conditioned associations, which is accompanied by abnormal amygdala functioning (Flor, Birbaumer, Hermann, Ziegler, & Patrick, 2002; Birbaumer et al., 2005). Blair, Peschardt, Budhani, Mitchell, & Pine (2006) have argued that these deficits, which are thought to be present in childhood, limit the ability to learn that one’s actions are causing distress to another, and thus compromise early moral socialisation. This view is supported by the work of Raine and colleagues who have shown in longitudinal studies that poor aversive conditioning capacity is associated with greater aggressive behaviour and crime in later life (Raine, Venables, & Williams, 1996; Gao, Raine, Vanables, Dawson, & Mednick, 2010).
3.10 NEUROCHEMISTRY OF PSYCHOPATHY
Relatively little is known about the neurochemistry underlying psychopathy. One noticeable exception has been a study on oxytocin levels in offenders. Oxytocin is a neuropeptide that is released from the paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus. It acts in the periphery to cause uterine contractions during labour and is involved in milk release during breast-feeding. The peptide, however, is also released into the brain where it acts on a diverse array of limbic, striatal and prefrontal structures. Within the brain, oxytocin plays critical roles by binding to receptors in the medial nuclei of the amygdala to drive the need to form attachments and cement interpersonal bonds (Insel & Winslow, 1998; Panksepp, Nelson, & Bekkedal, 1997; Nelson & Panskepp, 1998). It can also act on other nuclei within the amygdala to reduce fear responses (Kirsch et al., 2005).
The levels of intracerebral oxytocin can be raised by taking the neuropeptide intranasally. This process has been associated with the increased expression of many prosocial behaviours including trust (Baumgartner, Heinrichs, Vonlanthen, Fischbacher, & Fehr, 2008; Kosfeld, Heinrichs, Zac, Fischbacher, & Fehr, 2005), emotional empathy (Hurlemann et al., 2010) and altruism (Barraza, McCullough, Ahmadi, & Zak, 2011). However, recent findings have also shown that intranasal oxytocin can increase envy and gloating (Shamay-Tsoory et al., 2009), and intergroup bias, including a tendency to dehumanise racial outgroups (De Dreu, Greer, Van Kleef, Shalvi, & Handgraaf, 2011). Thus, oxytocin seems to enhance both prosocial and antisocial emotions, depending on the specific situation and context in which the participant is placed.
PHOTO 3.3 Oxytocin levels were found to be grossly elevated in those convicted of serious offences.
Source: © Mark Harvey / Alamy Stock Photo
Mitchell et al. (2013), in their seminal but largely overlooked work showed that urinary oxytocin levels, which can act as an index of cerebral levels, were grossly elevated in convicted serious offenders. Moreover, the oxytocin levels were highly correlated with Factor 2 scores on the PCL-R, indicative of raised oxytocin levels in relation to the lifestyle and antisocial features of the disorder. While controversial, this finding does have parallels in the developmental literature. Thus, Seltzer, Ziegler, Connolly, Prososki, & Pollak (2014) showed that adolescent girls who had experienced severe early abuse showed grossly elevated urinary oxytocin levels, and lower levels of salivary cortisol following a laboratory stressor. These findings taken together suggest that early maltreatment, a common characteristic observed among incarcerated offenders, may lead to neurochemical changes that have been linked with antisocial personality traits and behaviours in later life.
3.11 CONCLUSIONS
Current research suggests that psychopathic traits are identifiable in children and adults, and among forensic and non-forensic samples. These traits have a genetic component and are often accompanied by a variety of cognitive, affective and functional correlates. However, despite recent advances, a number of debates still exist in the literature. These include the extent to which subtypes of psychopathy exist, and whether or not psychopaths can experience feelings of anxiety or nervousness. The aggressive and antisocial behaviours of psychopaths are typified by instrumental motives and the use of violence for personal gain. The neurobiological underpinnings of psychopathic personality are becoming increasingly well understood with the development of more advanced and sophisticated techniques for brain imaging and neuropsychological assessment. Increasing knowledge on the underlying mechanisms will lead to more refined techniques for intervening and working with both children and adults who show psychopathic features and problematic behaviours.
3.12 SUMMARY
Psychopathy refers to a constellation of personality traits associated with antisocial behaviour and instrumental aggression
Both genetic and environmental factors have been linked with the development of psychopathic traits
Psychopaths show affective abnormalities including difficulty processing and learning from aversive social and emotional cues
The neurobiology of psychopathy is thought to be closely linked with amygdala dysfunction and impaired empathic development
ESSAY/DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
To what extent can psychopathy be distinguished from other disorders of personality that are characterised by antisocial behaviour?
Discuss the evidence for psychopathy as a heritable disorder.
Are psychopaths anxious?
What is the evidence to support the claim that psychopathy is a disorder of emotion processing?
ANNOTATED READING LIST
Blair, J., Mitchell, D., & Blair, K. (2005). The psychopath: emotion and the brain. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. This interesting text discusses a number of controversial issues, including the number of psychopaths in society and the underlying mechanisms for psychopaths’ antisocial behaviour.
Hare, R. D. (1999). Without conscience: The disturbing world of the psychopaths among us. New York: Guilford Press. From the author of the Psychopathy Checklist – Revised (PCL-R), this text uses real-life cases to describe the hallmark features of psychopathy.
Kiehl, K. (2014). The psychopath whisperer: Inside the minds of those without a conscience. London: Oneworld Publications. In this book, Kent Kiehl reviews the evidence from neuroscience, including findings from his own brain imaging and psychophysiology research, to highlight emotion-processing deficits among psychopaths.
Patrick, C. J. (Ed.). (2005). Handbook of psychopathy. New York: Guilford Press. Here Christopher Patrick presents an excellent collection of edited chapters covering definition, assessment, clinical and applied issues, and etiological mechanisms, including genetics, family factors, brain function and neurochemistry.
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