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4 Understanding Risk Factors for Offending: The Contributions of Neuroscience
ANTHONY R. BEECH, BENJAMIN NORDSTROM, ADRIAN RAINE AND DAWN FISHERM
CHAPTER OUTLINE
4.1 INTRODUCTION
4.2 THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE BRAIN
4.3 THE SOCIAL BRAIN 4.3.1 Evidence Suggesting Problems in the Structural Integrity of the Brains of Offenders
4.3.2 Evidence Suggesting Functional Problems in the Brain of Offenders
4.4 RISK FACTORS FOR OFFENDING 4.4.1 Genetic Factors and Offending
4.4.2 Abnormalities in Foetal Development
4.4.3 Other Prenatal Risk Factors
4.4.4 Perinatal Risk Factors
4.4.5 Post-natal/childhood Risk Factors
4.5 MODIFYING ENVIRONMENTAL RISK FACTORS
4.6 SUMMARY
LEARNING OUTCOMES
BY THE END OF THIS CHAPTER, YOU SHOULD BE ABLE TO:
Gain an understanding of brain development and the parts of the brain underpinning social and antisocial behaviours
Appreciate the types of risk factors that can have a negative impact upon brain development and brain function
Be aware of the types of interventions that can help ameliorate the problems stemming from the risk factors outlined in the chapter.
4.1 INTRODUCTION
Neuroscientific findings are becoming something that the forensic field has to deal with more commonly than ever before, as there is now a growing body of evidence that suggests that predisposition to offend can be associated with genetic, hormonal or neurobiological factors (Beech, Carter, Mann & Rotshtein, in press). Hence, the aim of this chapter is to investigate the contribution of forensic neuroscience to the understanding of the aetiology of criminal behaviours. In the first part of the chapter we will examine how the brain develops and the parts of the brain that are said to constitute the social brain. Also in this section we will describe some of the techniques to look at the structure and function of these areas. Next we consider the prenatal and post-natal risk factors, sometimes in combination with genetic factors, that can have an effect upon brain development that can potentiate the probability of offending. Then, we will examine what effects these risk factors have on critical areas of the social brain, particularly the amygdala, the insular, the orbital prefrontal cortex and the anterior cingulate cortex, which constitute the social brain; and how problems in these areas may in part lead to offending. Finally, we will describe some interventions to address these problems.
4.2 THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE BRAIN
Brain development and organisation is an extremely long and complex process, given that it contains approximately 86,000,000,000 (86 billion) neurons, and has around 100,000,000,000,000 (100 trillion) synaptic connections. Brain development through the formation of neurones (brain cells) begins shortly after conception, and continues throughout a person’s life, and is subject to specific developmental milestones. Once formed, these neurons begin to migrate to the correct location in the brain, and some synapses (connections) begin forming. Prenatal conditions, such as temperature, pressure and foetal movement stimulate the development of these connections. By five weeks after conception, the cells in the developing brain begin dividing rapidly to form the neurons that an individual will have for the rest of their lives. Processes such as myelination (the process of forming a coating or sheath of fatty substances on the axon of a neuron, which allows faster transmission of nerve impulses); and synaptogenesis (the formation of synapses between neurons in the nervous system) are well underway. At birth there is a rapid increase in the growth in the brain, and connectivity with neurons in all parts of the brain making trillions of connections (known as exuberant synaptogenesis). Myelination continues in most parts of the brain and is the major cause of the increase in brain size.
Early childhood years contain a period of rapid increases/changes in connectivity in the brain; in fact in the first four years the brain increases to 80% of its adult size. The process of changes in connectivity is both genetically and experience-driven, with the brain producing many more synapses than it will ultimately contain. In order to counter these over-connections, synaptic pruning occurs where connections are refined based on sensory, motor, language and cognitive experience, and parental-child interactions. Connections that are used regularly become stronger and more complex, while those that are not used are lost. The pruning process enables the brain to operate more efficiently and provides room for networks of essential connections to expand.
The brain continues to change and mature throughout adolescence, through myelination and synaptic pruning (most of which occurs between the ages of 10 to 16), where adolescents (if brain development goes well) become capable of insight, judgment, inhibition, reasoning and social conscience. Increased activity in the frontal lobes (the part of the brain that regulates decision-making, problem solving, control of purposeful behaviours, consciousness and emotions) enables the young person to make more sense of the world at both cognitive and emotional levels. This development increases into adulthood, with frontal-lobe development (an area of the brain responsible for judgment, planning, assessing risks and decision-making) being the last area to develop. This development continues until the individual is at least 25 years old, by which time individuals are generally less risky. For example, the UK Automobile Association reports that 26% of car user deaths, and 12% of all road deaths, are young people aged between 17 and 24 travelling in cars in the UK (AA, n.d.).
We will now briefly outline the areas of the brain that underpin social functioning and that, if dysfunctional, can underpin antisocial behaviours.
4.3 THE SOCIAL BRAIN
Social/antisocial behaviours are underpinned by neurobiological action. As a brief introduction, the most important parts of the brain associat
ed with social functioning are the limbic system and areas of the cerebral cortex.
The limbic system is a collection of structures that includes the hippocampus, amygdala, anterior thalamic nuclei, fornix, columns of fornix, mammillary body, septum pellucidum, habenular commissure, cingulate gyrus, parahippocampal gyrus, limbic cortex, and limbic midbrain areas. It supports a variety of functions including emotion, behaviour and motivation. Emotional life is largely housed in the limbic system, and it has a great deal to do with the formation of memories.
Probably the most important areas to consider are: the orbital prefrontal cortex (OPFC), situated at the very front of the brain, which is considered as the apex of the neural networks of the social brain, and is critical to the adaptation of behaviour in terms of controlling intense emotions and impulses; and the amygdala, which is found deep within the temporal lobe. This area’s functions are related to arousal, the control of responses associated with fear, emotion and memory. Other important areas include: (a) the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) situated below the cerebral cortices. This first appeared in animals demonstrating maternal behaviour, and provides the basic circuitry for communication, cooperation and empathy. Damage to this area can include decreases in empathy, emotional stability, and inappropriate social behaviours (Brothers, 1996); (b) the insular cortex, a portion of the cerebral cortex, which is a crucial area for understanding what it feels like to be human and is the source of social emotions such as lust, disgust, pride, humiliation, guilt and shame. Together with the premotor cortex, the insular is part of the circuitry that allows individuals to vicariously share the emotions of others; and (c) the basal ganglia, situated in the forebrain, associated with a variety of functions including cognitions, and emotions. Box 4.1 shows the types of techniques that have looked at structures of these and other brain areas, while Box 4.2 describes techniques that examine the functional processes that are carried out in these (and other areas) of the brain.
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