Native American Myths and Beliefs

by Tom Lowenstein

Tales narrated by the tribal elders thus performed several functions: they taught the younger generations how to hunt, travel and survive, but also anchored the present firmly in past experience. A sense of place and history was essential to Native American society, and mythology was regarded as just another form of history, albeit from a pre-tribal era. The major events that had occurred in the time before human memory were conveyed to each generation in the form of myths about the Tricksters, heroes and monsters of prehistory. Although these figures were seen as inhabiting a supernatural realm, the results of their actions were clearly evident in the present day in such topo-graphic features as hills, lakes and canyons. The tangible signs of myth therefore had as great a significance as the accomplishments of recent forebears. However inhospitable the terrain or difficult the hunting, each tribe came to terms with its environment by peopling it with figures from both the real and the mythological past.

  An indian encampment on the shore of Two medicine Lake in montana.

  A model of a canoe, made by the artist Tomah Joseph (1837–1914) from the Passamaquoddy indian reservation in maine.

  Tricksters: The Unpredictable Spirits

  The Trickster—a mischievous and capricious figure who deceives and exploits his fellow creatures for his own gratification—is found in the stories of all Native American peoples. He commonly appears as a semidivine but largely amoral presence at the creation of the world. In the guise of Raven, Coyote or Hare, a Trickster may permanently transform such natural phenomena as an animal’s appearance or the course of a river. But as often as he tricks others, a Trickster is himself duped and humbled. And however selfish and coarse he is, a Trickster’s antics provoke affectionate laughter, while his mythic power inspires awe.

  The generic term “Trickster” is an invention of European and white American writers, and wherever a Trickster figure appears in Native American myths, he was known only by his local name. Stories abound of Tricksters in the form of a Coyote, Raven or Hare, particularly among the Plains Indians and the peoples of the Southwest and Northwest Coast. But Tricksters also appear in human or semi-human form. Among the Ojib way and Menomini, the Trickster was essentially the same being as the hero Manabozho (see pages 82–83). And in Alaskan Inuit myth, the Moon Spirit who deceived his sister and then became master of the game animals was also a Trickster (see page 58).

  Among the most famous series of Trickster stories was that related by the Siouan-speaking Winnebago of central Wisconsin. In these tales, a tribal chief breaks religious and sexual taboos and then goes on the war path. Talking nonsense and re noun cing his social status, the ex-chief is shunned as a wicked person. He then embarks on a solitary journey, “calling all the objects in the world younger brothers” and speaking to them in their own tongues. At this point, the chief becomes a Trickster, and a series of loosely connected tales relates how he roams the world, sometimes transforming things for the good, but mostly interfering mischievously in the affairs of animals and people. The exploits of this “Older Brother,” as some creatures call him, are variously feared, marvelled at or viewed with indulgence and humor by his fellow beings. The Trickster himself is regarded by turns as cunning, intelligent, foolish or unlucky.

  Many animal spirits are depicted on this Kwakiutl cedarwood totem pole. one of the principal Native American Trickster figures, the raven, is second from the base.

  These contrasting character traits emerge clearly from two stories told by the Ojibway about the Trickster and wonder-worker Manabozho. In the first, his skillful subterfuge brings him success in hunting. One day, Manabozho enticed a lone moose by claiming to be its estranged brother. As the animal drew near, Manabozho asked it whether it had heard the news about the person who killed his brother. Not realizing that the Trickster was alluding to its own impending death, the moose was caught off guard, even letting itself be persuaded to stand with its head averted, at which point Manabozho promptly shot it.

  The other side of Manabozho’s character emerges from a story relating how he once fell asleep, having ordered his rear end to guard some fowl roasting on a fire. When the birds were stolen and no alarm raised, the Trickster foolishly set his own hind quarters alight as punishment.

  A Foolish Dive

  Many stories show the Trickster as a victim of his own false perceptions. In this Arapaho legend, a figure called Nihansan dives into water to gather fruit that are merely reflections.

  One day, Nihansan was walking by a stream when he spotted some juicy red plums under the water. He desperately wanted to eat them, so he undressed, dived into the water and groped about on the stream bed, trying to collect the fruit.

  He emerged from the stream empty-handed, but resolved to try again. Taking some stones, he tied them to his wrists and ankles to weigh himself down under water. He plunged in for a second time, and searched the bottom in vain. Eventually, when he could hold his breath no longer, he released the stones and floated up to the surface.

  Looking up, he suddenly noticed plums hanging on a tree above him. “You fool!” he said to himself, and climbed out of the water. He went to the tree, where he ate some of the plums and picked some more for his onward journey.

  Many Ojibway stories about Manabozho portray him on the move in search of fun and gratification. Yet however dissolute and willful he allows himself to be, his transforming power is always present. One story recounts how he persuaded a group of swans, geese and ducks to dance for him with their eyes closed. Beating his drum with one hand, he broke the necks of these waterfowl with the other. Only the “Helldiver” (loon) opened its eyes and escaped, for which Manabozho punished the bird by giving it its characteristic red eyes.

  Several Winnebago stories end with the Trickster undergoing a character change and becoming a transformer after a series of mishaps. In one such tale, the Trickster is weary of life on Earth. He suddenly recalls why Earthmaker sent him to the world. As a last sign of his nobler disposition, he travels around removing hindrances to humans, for example, by altering the course of rivers and clearing mountain passes of obstacles. Then he retires to heaven, leaving Hare in charge of the Earth.

  Raven and Hare

  The Raven was a highly important Trickster figure in the myths of many Native American cultures. For peoples of the Northwest Coast, the Arctic and the Subarctic, Raven was, and still is, a heroic creator. Elsewhere, other figures such as Hare filled the Trickster role.

  Countless Native American myths describe how Raven created the world, yet also treat him as the supreme Trickster. This seeming paradox may ultimately derive from conflicting attitudes towards the real bird—for example, the Koyukon Indians of central Alaska regard ravens as clever birds, but also consider their behavior unpredictable and comic. Moreover, while ravens appear quick-witted and keenly aware of human behavior, they are actually lazy scavengers, living off the food that animals and people have made efforts to hunt.

  As a creator, Raven made the world twice over. The first world was a paradise: meat was plentiful, and rivers flowed in both directions, so people never had to paddle their canoes. But Raven thought this world too easy for humans, and so he remade it in its familiar form, with all its hardships and woes. This primal Great Raven is revered among Northwest Coast peoples as the “grandfather” figure to whom people attri bute creative and healing power and to whom they pray for luck in hunting, good health and prosperity.

  Yet Raven has a negative dimension to his character, which emerges in his reputation for selfishness and greed. Both real ravens and the Raven Trickster are thought to lead an easy life, and some contempt attaches to them accordingly. Myths describe Dotson’sa (the Great Raven creator) as sleeping in dog-skin blankets, whose foul smell and roughness were repellent to people.

  The paradox of Raven’s character, and of the ambivalent attitudes shown towards him, is ex pressed in a multitude of myths and legends from the Northwest Coast. To peoples of this region, Raven is a creator and transformer but also a buffoon and dupe. The Haida
call him Power-of-the-Shining-Heavens, as he made both day and night. Like wise, he created the great rivers, the forests that teem with wildlife, the useful trees and berries and the sea with all its fish and mammals.

  Alongside accounts of these achievements are comic tales of Raven’s mischief-making and humiliation. In a story told by the Nootka of British Colum bia, some old people were sitting watching a woman with eight braids of hair who was walking on the beach. She carried with her a stick, and she began to dig up clams. Soon a tall figure with black hair appeared. The people recognized the pair as Octopus and Raven, and they knew that Raven would begin to pester Octopus.

  A 19th-century Tlingit emblem hat, worn for ceremonial occasions by members of the raven clan. Throughout North America, the raven was a widespread Trickster hero, held responsible for bringing light to earth.

  The Trickster figure hare is shown in this Navajo weaving. hare is both a benefactor and a clown, and, like other Tricksters, can effect transformations.

  Raven duly sat down on a rock and asked her, “Octopus, are you digging for clams?” Octopus woman continued to dig in silence. Raven repeated his question, but still got no reply. Suddenly, after he had asked for a fourth time, Octopus’s braids turned into tentacles. Wrapping four around Raven and four around the rock, she said, “Raven, I’m glad you asked that question. Yes. I am digging clams. These are clams. And I am digging them.” Raven struggled. The tide was coming in. “You have answered my question, Octopus. Thank you. Now please let me go.” But, as the water became deeper, Octopus kept repeating her answer and held Raven fast. The water rose over his head, and the people saw him drown. They were unconcerned, however, as they knew he would come to life again. And indeed, the very next day, Raven was back. But he re frained from asking Octopus any more questions.

  Hare is another Trickster figure in Native mythology. In stories of the Winnebago, he is born of a virgin who dies, leaving him in the care of his grandmother. As Hare roams the world, he acts as both benefactor and clown. His grandmother, who represents the spirit of the Earth, often has to rescue him or excuse his mistakes.

  Coyote, a Sly Wild Dog

  Native American mythology has more stories about Coyote as a Trickster than about any other animal or character. This may derive from the fact that the coyote thrives throughout almost all of North America. Many creation myths show the half-animal, half-human Coyote as playing a major role in the early days of the Earth.

  Like the raven—its counterpart in Trickster stories—the real coyote is a scavenger, yet it also hunts for itself, taking small rodents and rabbits and cleverly concealing its uneaten food. Many Coy ote myths reflect both admiration and contempt for this resourceful beast. On the one hand, Coyote is a hero who helps organize the primordial world. On the other, he is the buffoon whose adventures resemble those of Raven and other Tricksters such as Mana bozho (see pages 76–77). Some stories, such as those of the Caddo of the Southeast, also show Coyote starting his career as hero and transformer, and then changing into a Trickster, or even an evil character.

  This 18th-century carved adze handle from the Chinook culture of the Northwest Coast has twin images of the Trickster Coyote perched on the shoulders of a spirit helper. Coyote appears in the creation myths of many Native American peoples.

  In the beginning, acc ording to the Caddo, the Great-Father-Above created the physical world, but it was Coyote who helped people or -gan ize their society. As the early physical and social world developed, certain things needed altering. The sun, for example, travelled too fast. So Coyote decided to intervene. He went to meet the sun and accompanied it on its westward journey. After engaging it in casual conversation, Coyote went into the bushes on the pretext of relieving himself and asked the sun to wait. But Coyote never returned, and even though the sun eventually gave up waiting and resumed its journey, it could not make up lost time. In this way, Coyote extended the hours of daylight.

  Despite bringing such benefits to humanity, however, Coyote was usually depicted as thoroughly bad. The final episode of the Caddo sun story tells how the Great-Father-Above threatened to banish Coyote for his mean tricks. Although Coyote repeatedly promises to desist, he cannot overcome his Trickster nature, and so he is exiled. Many other tales about Coyote end in his exclusion from society or even his death. Yet he is indestructible, always springing back to life to embark upon new adventures.

  A sandpainting by the Navajo of the southwest depicts several creator beings, among whom are the first man, first woman and Coyote.

  Coyote and Bear

  Tricksters often come into conflict with other creatures. In this story, told among the Northern Paiute, Coyote emerges victorious from a feud with Bear. However, even in cases where the Trickster figure is killed, he is always able to regenerate himself.

  Coyote once exacted revenge on Bear, who had killed and eaten his son. He finally tracked Bear down beside a stream, where he was dozing after a meal of berries. Coyote hid and called out, “What are you hunting?” “Berries and chokecherries,” said the Bear. “Did you ever do mischief?” “No,” replied Bear. But Coyote prompted the Bear into recalling that he had eaten a child about a year before. Coyote resolved to trick him. “You’ll find lots of berries on that hill over there,” he called. “You might think someone wants to shoot you, but don’t be alarmed.” As soon as Bear had climbed the hill, Coyote shot him, lit a fire and roasted him. As the meat was cooking, he began to play with some split trees that the wind was opening and closing, but got his hand stuck. While he was incapacitated, some crows came and ate the bear meat. Coyote eventually freed himself and ate the bone marrow. Piling up the bones, he sang: “I’m a pretty strong person. Even if you kill me, I’ll come back to life. Even if the grass is growing through my bones.”

  A Plains indian shield depicting the figure of a bear, an animal widely respected for its great strength.

  Another story told by the Caddo describes how Coyote was distracted from hunting buffalo by a turkey roosting in a tall tree. He called to the bird: “If you don’t come here, I’ll climb the tree. If you fly to another, I’ll break it down and kill you. Only if you fly towards the prairie will you be safe. I have no power over anything on the prairie.” The turkey unwisely took Coyote at his word and made for the prairie, where the Trickster easily ran it down, killed it and he began to devour it. Glancing slyly about him as he ate to see if anyone was watching, Coyote thought he caught a glimpse out of the corner of his eye of someone standing behind him ready to strike. Without waiting to see who it was, he called on a skill he had been endowed with since the beginning of time, and began to run. He ran ever faster, but could not elude his pursuer. Eventually, he gave up and rolled over on his back to beg for mercy. But as he did so, he heard something crack. This turned out to be a turkey feather that had lodged between two of his upper teeth and, sticking up vertically just behind his right eye, had deceived him into thinking he was being followed. When he realized that he had been fooled by a mere feather, Coyote was furious. Ever since that time, according to the story, the coyote has had a wild appearance, loping away slowly at first and constantly glancing to his right to see if he is being followed.

  Heroes of Myth and History

  Heroes of Indian mythology were almost always male, and they were often the product of a miraculous birth. Straddling the world of spirits and humans, they were ambiguous characters. In addition, historical figures were often accorded legendary status.

  The hero Trickster Manabozho was the product of a union between a human being and a spirit. The story of his birth is told in a legend of the Menomini of the Lake Michigan region. At the beginning of time there lived an old woman with a single daughter. Every day the woman left her daughter in their tent and went to dig potatoes. But the young woman hated being left alone and finally persuaded her mother to let her accompany her. The old woman gave her a hoe, on one strict condition: that she faced south as she labored and never turned around. The two women worked f
or a while, but distracted by conversation and the pleasure she took in her new occupation, the young woman did indeed turn round. No sooner had she done so than she was swept off her feet by a great wind and blown into some nearby bushes. As the mother had feared, her daughter had attracted, and been impregnated by, the male north wind. The result of this union was Manabozho, who was raised by his grandmother after his mother died in childbirth.

  Many hero stories start with such magical impregnations. But heroes may also be the supernaturally born “grandchildren” of solitary old women. Northwest Coast people often describe the Trickster Raven—part human, part bird—as the grandchild and companion of the “earth crone,” or primal grandmother, who is believed to have existed from the beginning of time. Once created, one of Raven’s exploits is to engineer his own supernatural rebirth.

  A haida mask depicting the figure of raven. masks such as this would be worn for dance performances that took place during ceremonial rituals.

  One account describes how Raven wishes to enter the household of the people who are hoarding daylight. To gain entrance, he transforms himself into a pine needle and drops into a cup of water. When the daughter of the family drinks from the cup, the pine needle miraculously makes her pregnant. After Raven is duly reborn as a human, he can proceed with his planned theft of the light.

  Many Native American mythical heroes have a complex character. The hero is a human being, whose life on earth is just like that of legendary early people. But he is touched with divine power, which makes him physically gigantic, enormously powerful and capable of overcoming the strongest of enemies. Moreover, the hero may share some characteristics with the Trickster. In the story above, Raven is a hero because he brought light to Earth, but he achieves this through deceit.