The World of the Crusades

by Christopher Tyerman

  3. C. Tyerman, How to Plan a Crusade (London 2015), pp. 45–50, 204–7; A. Bysted, The Crusade Indulgence: Spiritual Rewards and the Theology of the Crusades c. 1095–1216 (Leiden 2015); J. Brundage, Medieval Canon Law and the Crusader (Madison 1969).

  4. M. C. Gaposchkin, Invisible Weapons: Liturgy and the Making of Crusade Ideology (Ithaca, NY 2017).

  5. J. B. Pitra, Analecta Novissima (Paris 1885–8), ii, Sermon XI, pp. 328–31; cf. F. H. Russell, The Just War in the Midde Ages (Cambridge 1975), p. 205; in general, G. Constable, ‘The Cross of the Crusaders’, Crusaders and Crusading in the Twelfth Century (Farnham 2008), pp. 45–91.

  6. C. Tyerman, The Invention of the Crusade (Basingstoke 1998), p. 79 and n. 210 p. 147; idem, How to Plan a Crusade, p. 84.

  7. Trans. J. and L. Riley-Smith, The Crusades, p. 139.

  8. Curia Regis Rolls (London 1922–), viii, 324; in general Brundage, Medieval Canon Law, pp. 159–90.

  9. T. Van Cleve, The Emperor Frederick II of Hohenstaufen (Oxford 1972), p. 528 and n. 1.

  10. C. Tyerman, England and the Crusades 1095–1588 (Chicago 1988), pp. 111, 185, 414 n. 132; Constable, ‘Cross of the Crusaders’, p. 90.

  11. Tyerman, The Invention of the Crusade, pp. 76–83, esp. 82–3; idem, How to Plan a Crusade, p. 87.

  12. The son of Merot the Jew in 1239, Recueil des historiens des Gaules et de la France, ed. M. Bouquet et al. (Paris 1738–1876), xxii, 600.

  13. Tyerman, How to Plan a Crusade, pp. 150–77.

  14. Chanson de Roland, ed. J. Dufornet (Paris 1973), v. 1015.

  15. N. Morton, The Field of Blood: The Battle for Aleppo and the Remaking of the Medieval Middle East (New York 2018)

  16. J. Powell, Anatomy of a Crusade 1213–1221 (Philadelphia 1986), p. 167; John of Tubia, De Iohanne Rege Ierusalem, ed. R. Röhricht, Quinti Belli Sacri Scriptores Minores (Geneva 1879), p. 139; Tyerman, How to Plan a Crusade, pp. 165–7; in general C. Maier, ‘The Roles of Women in the Crusade Movement: A Survey’, Journal of Medieval History, 30 (2004), 61–82.

  17. J. Migne, Patrologia Latina (Paris 1844–64), 216, col. 1262; cf. Brundage, Medieval Canon Law, p. 77.

  18. For text, P. G. Schmidt, ‘Peregrinatio periculosa: Thomas von Froidmont über die Jerusalem-Fahrten seiner Schwester Margareta’, Kontinuität und Wandel. Lateinische Poesie von Naevius bis Baudelaire. Franco Munari zum 65. Geburtstag, ed. U. J. Stache et al. (Hildesheim 1986), pp. 461–85; cf. Maier, ‘Roles of women’, pp. 64–7.

  19. Albert of Aachen, Historia Ierosolimitana, ed. S. Edgington (Oxford 2007), pp. 126–9; Matthew 10:37–8; Vincent of Prague, Annales, Monumenta Germaniae Historica. Sciptores, ed. G. Pertz et al. (Hanover etc. 1826–1934), 17, 663.

  20. Brundage, Medieval Canon Law, p. 77 and n. 38.

  21. Augustine of Hippo, City of God, Bk XIX, c. 7; cf. Bk I, c. 21; trans. H. Bettenson (London 1984), pp. 32, 862.

  22. E.g. Exodus 32:26; Joshua 6:21; I Samuel 15:3; Psalm 137; II Maccabees 15:27–8.

  23. P. Buc, ‘Some Thoughts on the Christian Theology of Violence, Medieval and Modern’, Rivista di Storia del Christianismo, 5 (2008), 9–28; in general C. Tyerman, ‘Violence and Holy War in Western Christendom’, The Routledge History of Medieval Christianity 1050–1500, ed. R. N. Swanson (London 2015), pp. 185–96; Tyerman, God’s War, pp. 28–57; Russell, Just War, pp. 1–39 and passim; C. Erdmann, The Origins of the Idea of the Crusade, trans. M. W. Baldwin and W. Goffart (Princeton 1977).

  24. Bede, Ecclesiastical History of the English People, ed. B. Colgrave and R. A. B. Mynors (Oxford 1969), pp. 214–15, 240–3, 251 for the example of Oswald of Northumbria, a new Constantine.

  25. R. Bartlett, Why Can the Dead Do Such Great Things? (Princeton 2013), pp. 321–4, 378–83.

  26. D. Boutet, ‘Le sens de mort de Roland dans la literature des XIIe et XIIIe siècles’, Chevalerie et christianisme au XIIe et XIIIe siècles, ed. M. Aurell (Rennes 2011), pp. 257–69, esp. 264–6.

  27. MGH Epistolarum, v (Berlin 1898), p. 601, s.a. 853; vii (Berlin 1912), pp. 126–7, no. 150.

  28. Trans. J. F. O’Callaghan, Reconquest and Crusade in Medieval Spain (Philadelphia 2003), p. 30.

  29. The Register of Pope Gregory VII 1073–1085, trans. H. E. J. Cowdrey (Oxford 2002), p. 123.

  30. Register of Gregory VII, p. 380.

  31. Guibert of Nogent, Gesta Dei Per Francos, RHC Occ., iv, 124.

  32. See recent studies by M. C. Gaposchkin, ‘Origins and Development of the Pilgrimage and Cross Blessings’, Medieval Studies, 73 (2011), 261–86; ‘The Place of Jerusalem in Western Crusading Rites of Departure’, Catholic Historical Review, 99 (2013), 1–28; ‘From Pilgrimage to Crusade: The Liturgy of Departure 1095–1300’, Speculum, 88 (2013), 44–91, and her book, Invisible Weapon: Liturgy and the Making of Crusade Ideology (Ithaca, NY 2017).

  33. Bysted, The Crusade Indulgence, esp. chap. 4.

  34. Joinville and Villehardouin. Chronicles of the Crusades, trans. C. Smith (London 2008), p. 176.

  35. On Cutting his Hair before Going on Crusade, The Penguin Book of Irish Poetry, ed. P. Crotty (London 2010), pp. 125–6.

  36. Yorkshire Charters, viii, ed. C. T. Clay (London 1949), pp. 84–5; cf. M. Clanchy, From Memory to Written Record (London 1979), pp. 24–5.

  37. Tyerman, The Invention of the Crusades, pp. 49–55 (‘Language’).

  38. C. Tyerman, ‘Paid Crusaders: Money and Incentives on Crusade’, idem, The Practices of Crusading (Farnham 2013), no. XIV, pp. 1–40.

  39. Recueil des actes de Philippe Auguste, i, ed. H. F. Delaborde et al. (Paris 1916), no. 286.

  40. For examples from a large literature, P. Deschamps, ‘Combats de cavalerie et episodes des croisades dans les peintures murales de xiie et du xiiie siècle’, Orientalia Christiana Periodica, xiiii (1947), 454–74; C. Morris, ‘Picturing the Crusades’, The Crusades and their Sources, ed. J. France et al. (Aldershot 1998), esp. pp. 201–6; J. Munns, ‘The Vision of the Cross and the Crusade in England before 1189’, The Crusades and Visual Culture, ed. E. Lapina et al. (Farnham 2015), pp. 57–73.

  41. Ed. H. R. Luard (London 1872–84); for criticism, M. Aurell, Des chrétiens contres les croisades (Paris 2013); E. Siberry Criticism of Crusading 1095–1274 (Oxford 1985); P. Throop, Criticism of the Crusades (Amsterdam 1940).

  42. Rutebeuf, ‘La desputizons dou croisié et dou descroisié, Onze poems concernant la croisade’, ed. J. Bastin and E. Faral (Paris 1946), pp. 84–94.

  43. C. Douais, ed., Documents pour servir à l’histoire de l’Inquisition dans le Languedoc (Paris 1900), ii, 94.

  44. S. Lambert, ‘Translation, Citation and Ridicule: Renart the Fox and Crusading in the Vernacular’, Languages of Love and Hate, ed. S. Lambert and H. Nicholson (Turnhout 2012), pp. 65–84.

  45. S. Lambert, ‘Playing at Crusading: Cultural Memory and its (Re)creation in Jean Bodel’s Jeu de St Nicholas’, Journal of Medieval History, 40 (2014), 361–80.

  46. See now L. Paterson, Singing the Crusades (Woodbridge 2018).

  47. Gerald of Wales, De principis instructione, Opera, ed. J. S. Brewer et al. (London 1861–91), viii, 207.

  1 THE MEDITERRANEAN CRISIS AND THE BACKGROUND TO THE FIRST CRUSADE

  1. The Annals of the Saljuk Turks: Selections from al-Kamil fi’l Ta’rikh of Izz al-Din Ibn al-Athir, trans. D. S. Richards (London 2002), p. 192; Gesta Francorum, trans. R. Hill (London 1962), pp. 91–2.

  2. In general on structures in the Islamic empire, see J. Berkey, The Formation of Islam: Religion and Society in the Near East 600–1800 (Cambridge 2003), esp. chaps 18–23.

  3. Nāser-e Khusraw’s Book of Travels, trans. W. M. Thackston (New York 1986), esp. pp. 2–4, 9–10, 13, 21, 35, 37–45, 52 passim. On the Near East, very generally, New Cambridge Medieval History, 4 vols, ed. D. Luscombe and J. Riley-Smith (Cambridge 2004), vol. II, chaps 22 and 23.

  4. See esp. D. Wasserstein, The Rise and Fall of the Party Kings: Politics and Society in Islamic Spain 1003–1086 (Princeton 1985).

  5. For a political overv
iew, M. Angold, The Byzantine Empire 1025–1204 (London 1984).

  6. E.g. The Damascus Chronicle of the Crusades Extracted and Translated from the Chronicle of Ibn al-Qalānisī, trans. H. A. R. Gibb (London 1932), pp. 41–4.

  7. On climate, R. Ellenblum, The Collapse of the Eastern Mediterranean: Climate Change and the Decline of the East 950–1072 (Cambridge 2012); on Seljuks, A. C. S. Peacock, Early Seljuk History: A New Interpretation (London 2010), and idem, The Great Seljuk Empire (Edinburgh 2015), and, briefly, P. M. Cobb, The Race for Paradise: An Islamic History of the Crusades (Oxford 2014), pp. 81–4.

  8. Annals of the Saljuk Turks, p. 139.

  9. N. Morton, ‘The Saljuq Turks’ Conversion to Islam: The Crusading Sources’, Al-Masdaq, 27 (2015), 109–18; and idem, The Field of Blood (New York 2018), pp. 74–7.

  10. Annals of the Saljuk Turks, p. 23.

  11. Usama ibn Munqidh, Book of Contemplation: Islam and the Crusades, trans. P. M. Cobb (London 2008), pp. 162–3.

  12. On Syria’s status, Cobb, Race for Paradise, pp. 33–5, and pp. 78–88 for the Seljuk intervention.

  13. J. Shepard. ‘When Greek Meets Greek’, Byzantine and Modern Greek Studies, 12 (1988), 185–278.

  14. J. Harris, Byzantium and the Crusades (London 2003); Cambridge History of Byzantium, ed. J. Shepard (Cambridge 2009); P. Lock, The Franks in the Aegean 1204–1500 (London 1995).

  15. For an accessible account, D. Crouch, The Birth of Nobility (Harlow 2005).

  16. Guibert of Nogent, Gesta Dei Per Francos, RHC Occ., iv, 141, trans. R. Levine, The Deeds of God through the Franks (Woodbridge 1997), p. 47. In general on planning, C. Tyerman, How to Plan a Crusade: Reason and Religious War in the High Middle Ages (London 2015), refs to First Crusade.

  17. Guibert of Nogent, Gesta Dei Per Francos, RHC Occ., iv, 184; trans. p. 89; on the Byzantine connection, P. Frankopan, The First Crusade: The Call from the East (London 2012).

  18. Orderic Vitalis, Ecclesiastical History, ed. M. Chibnall (Oxford 1969–80), III, pp. 134–6, vol. V, pp. 156–9; in general, C. Tyerman, God’s War: A New History of the Crusades (London 2006), pp. 81–3, 112–14 and refs.

  19. Albert of Aachen, Historia Ierosolimitana, ed. S. Edgington (Oxford 2007), pp. 154–5, 160–1, 190–1, 230–3, 476–9.

  20. For a summary and refs, J. France, Victory in the East: A Military History of the First Crusade (Cambridge 1994), pp. 165–6, 211, 252–4, 302, 304, 317, 325–6, 334, 358, 368.

  21. E.g. Anselm of Ribemont to the archbishop of Rheims, Antioch, July 1098, in E. Peters, ed., The First Crusade (2nd edn, Philadelphia 1998), pp. 289–91; Gesta Francorum, ed. and trans. Hill, pp. 20–1, 66–7.

  22. Albert of Aachen, Historia, pp. 146–7, 164–5; Raymond of Aguilers, Historia Francorum qui ceperunt Iherusalem, RHC Occ., iii, 278; trans. J. H. and L. L. Hill, The History of the Frankish Conquerors of Jerusalem (Philadelphia 1968), p. 91.

  23. Anna Komnene, The Alexiad, trans E. R. A. Sewter and P. Frankopan (London 2003), pp. 115, 183–5, 410.

  24. Above, notes 15 and 16; K. Ciggaar, ‘Byzantine Marginalia to the Norman Conquest’, Anglo-Norman Studies, ix (1986), 43–63; J. Shepard, ‘The Use of Franks in Eleventh-Century Byzantium’, Anglo-Norman Studies, xv (1993), 275–305.

  25. W. J Aerts, ‘The Latin-Greek Wordlist in MS 236 of the Municipal Library of Avranches, fol. 97v’, Anglo-Norman Studies, ix (1986), 64–9.

  26. Ibn Khaldun, The Muqaddimah: An Introduction to History, trans. F. Rosenthal (Princeton 1958), vol. II, p. 42.

  27. See now R. D. Smith, ‘Calamity and Transition: Re-imagining Italian Trade in the Eleventh-Century Mediterranean’, Past and Present, 228 (2015), 15–56.

  28. C. Tyerman, How to Plan a Crusade: Reason and Religious War in the High Middle Ages (London 2015), pp. 104–7 and refs; in general, S. Menache, The Vox Dei: Communication in the Middle Ages (London 1990); cf. C. Maier, Preaching the Crusades (Cambridge 1994), chap. 5.

  29. De expugnatione Lyxbonensi, trans. C. W. David (New York 1976), pp. 70–1.

  30. Aerts, ‘The Latin-Greek Wordlist in MS 236’, 64–9

  31. Gesta Francorum, ed. and trans. Hill, pp. 66–7.

  32. The Chronicle of Henry of Livonia, trans. J. Brundage (New York 2003), p. 53.

  33. D. Abulafia, ‘Trade and Crusade 1050–1250’, Cultural Convergences in the Crusader Period, ed. M. Goodich et al. (New York 1995), p. 15, and generally pp. 1–20; on Pisan bacini, idem, ‘The Pisan bacini and the medieval Mediterranean: A historian’s viewpoint’, Italy, Sicily and the Mediterranean (London 1987), no. XIII; K. R. Mathews, ‘Other Peoples’ Dishes: Islamic Bacini on Eleventh-Century Churches in Pisa’, Gesta, 53 (2014), 5–23; in general, A. Metcalfe and M. Rosser-Owen, ‘Forgotten Connections? Medieval Material Culture and Exchange in the Central and Western Mediterranean’, Al-Masdaq, 25 (2013), esp. 1–8.

  34. The Register of Pope Gregory VII 1073–1085, trans. H. E. J. Cowdrey (Oxford 2002), pp. 204–5.

  2 THE FIRST CRUSADE

  1. Trans. J. and L. Riley-Smith, The Crusades: Idea and Reality, 1095–1274 (London 1981), p. 39.

  2. D. Richards, trans., The Chronicle of Ibn al-Athir for the Crusading Period from al Kamil fi’l-Ta’rikh (Aldershot 2006), vol. 1, 13.

  3. Anna Comnena, The Alexiad, trans. E. R. A. Sewter, intro. P. Frankopan (London 2009), pp. 101–3.

  4. A. Jotischky, ‘The Christians of Jerusalem, the Holy Sepulchre and the Origins of the First Crusade’, Crusades, 7 (2008), 35–57.

  5. A. Becker, Papst Urban II (Stuttgart 1964–2012); cf. H. E. J. Cowdrey, ‘Pope Urban II’s Preaching of the First Crusade’, History, 55 (1970), and for the general context, C. Morris, The Papal Monarchy: The Western Church from 1050 to 1250 (Oxford 1989).

  6. William of Malmesbury, Gesta Regum Anglorum, ed. W. Stubbs, Rolls Series (London 1887–9), vol. II, p. 390.

  7. J. P. Migne, Patrologia Latina (Paris 1844–64), vol. cli, col. 504.

  8. Migne, Patrologia Latina, vol. cli, col. 303; generally A. Becker, ‘Urbain II, pape de la croisade’, in Y. Bellenger and D. Quéruel, eds, Les champenois et la croisade (Paris 1989), pp. 9–17.

  9. R. Somerville, The Councils of Urban II, Decreta Claromontensia (Amsterdam 1972), p. 74 and passim.

  10. The Register of Pope Gregory VII 1073–1085, trans. H. E. J. Cowdrey, p. 128 and generally pp. 122–4, 127–8; cf. Urban II’s letters, in J. and L. Riley-Smith, The Crusades, pp. 38–40.

  11. J. and L. Riley-Smith, The Crusades, p. 39.

  12. C. Tyerman, God’s War: A New History of the Crusades (London 2006), pp. 72–3 and refs; for crusaders’ letters, see trans. E. Peters, The First Crusade (2nd edn, Philadelphia 1998), pp. 284–96.

  13. Albert of Aachen, Historia Ierosolimitana, ed. and trans. S. Edgington (Oxford 2007), p. 4 and generally pp. 2–45.

  14. Jotischky, ‘The Christians of Jerusalem’, 35–57.

  15. Albert of Aachen, Historia Ierosolimitana, ed. and trans. Edgington, p. 4 and generally pp. 2–45; for an apparent eyewitness physical description, Guibert of Nogent, The Deeds of God through the Franks, trans. R. Levine (Woodbridge 1997), pp. 47–8.

  16. E. Blake and C. Morris, ‘A Hermit Goes to War’, Studies in Church History, 22 (1985), 79–107; J. Flori, Pierre l’ermite et la première croisade (Paris 1999).

  17. Jotischky, ‘The Christians of Jerusalem,’ 35–57.

  18. See now D. Park, Papal Protection and the Crusader (Woodbridge 2018).

  19. C. Tyerman, How to Plan a Crusade: Reason and Religious War in the High Middle Ages (London 2015), pp. 170–7.

  20. J. and L. Riley-Smith, The Crusades, pp. 44, 52.

  21. Gesta Francorum, ed. and trans. R. Hill (London 1962), pp. 19–20.

  22. Caffaro, De liberatione civitatum Orientis, RHC Occ., vol. v, 49.

  23. For the example of Rotrou III of Perche, see J. Riley-Smith, The First Crusaders 1095–1131 (Cambridge 1997), pp. 104–5; K. Thompson, Power and Border Lordship in Medieval France: The County of Perche 1000–1226
(Woodbridge 2002), pp. 54–85.

  24. J. France, Victory in the East: A Military History of the First Crusade (Cambridge 1994), p. 142 and generally on numbers, pp. 122–42.

  25. Baldric of Bourgueil, Historia Jerosolimitana, RHC Occ., iv, 17; C. Tyerman, ‘Paid Crusaders’, The Practices of Crusading (Farnham 2013), no. XIV, pp. 1–40.

  26. Recueil des chartes de l’abbaye de Cluny, ed. A. Bruel (Paris 1894), vol. V, 51–3, no. 3703; A. V. Murray, ‘Money and Logistics in the First Crusade’, Logistics of Warfare in the Age of the Crusades, ed. J. H. Pryor (Aldershot 2006), pp. 239–41.

  27. For the formula pro anima mea – for my soul – C. Bouchard, Sword, Mitre and Cloister (Ithaca, NY 1987), pp. 241–3.

  28. Chartes originals antérieurs à 1121 conservées en France, ed. C. Giraud et al. (Nancy and Orléans 2010), no. 3133; Tyerman, How to Plan a Crusade, p. 206.

  29. P. Frankopan, The First Crusade: The Call from the East (London 2012), p. 116.

  30. Descriptions in Albert of Aachen, Historia, pp. 50–1; R. Chazan, European Jewry and the First Crusade (Berkeley and Los Angeles 1987), pp. 223–97, for the earliest Hebrew accounts.

  31. H. Hagenmeyer, Die Kreuzzugsbriefe aus den Jahre 1088–1100 (Innsbruck 1901), pp. 138, 140; Albert of Aachen, Historia, pp. 86–7; cf. pp. 72–3; Fulcher of Chartres, A History of the Expedition to Jerusalem, trans. F. R. Ryan (Knoxville 1969), pp. 80, 83; Ralph of Caen, Gesta Tancredi, trans. B. S. and D. S. Bachrach (Aldershot 2005), pp. 42–3.

  32. Chazan, European Jewry and the First Crusade; idem, The Jews of Medieval Western Christendom (Cambridge 2006); R. Rist, Popes and Jews 1095–1291 (Oxford 2016).

  33. Fulcher of Chartres, History, p. 80.

  34. Peters, The First Crusade, pp. 283–4, for the Patriarch’s and crusaders’ joint letter to the west, January 1098.

  35. Hagenmeyer, Kreuzzugsbriefe, p. 149.

  36. Matthew of Edessa, Chronique, RHC Docs Arméniens, vol. II, p. 41; cf. Albert of Aachen, Historia, pp. 316–21.

  37. Raymond of Aguilers, Historia Francorum Qui Ceperunt Iherusalem, trans. J. H. and L. J. Hill (Philadelphia 1968), p. 80; Albert of Aachen, Historia, pp. 384–5.