The World of the Crusades
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Chapter Five
Besides general works already cited, for Outremer politics pre-1187, B. Hamilton, The Leper King and His Heirs (Cambridge 2000); on Hattin, J. France, Hattin (Oxford 2015); for the chief players during the Third Crusade, M. Lyons and P. Jackson, Saladin: The Politics of the Holy War (Cambridge 1982); A.-M. Eddé, Saladin (Cambridge, MA 2011); J. Gillingham, Richard I (London 1999); there is no modern scholarly work dedicated to the Third Crusade, but it is dealt with in previously cited general studies and now in part by J. D. Hosler, The Siege of Acre 1189–91 (London 2018); on planning, recruitment and logistics, C. Tyerman, How to Plan a Crusade: Reason and Religious War in the High Middle Ages (London 2015). On the development of the ideology and liturgy of the crusaders’ cross, see now M. C. Gaposchkin, Invisible Weapons: Liturgy and the Making of Crusade Ideology (Ithaca, NY 2017). On the remaking of the crusade, C. Tyerman, ‘Ehud’s Sharpened Sword’, God’s War (London 2006), pp. 477–500; on the German Crusade, G. Loud, ‘The German Crusade of 1197–98’, Crusades, 13 (2014), 143–71.
Chapter Six
On the Near East in the thirteenth century, P. M. Holt, The Age of the Crusades: The Near East from the Eleventh Century until 1517 (London 1986); C. Hillenbrand, The Crusades: Islamic Perspectives (Edinburgh 1999), esp. chap. 4; R. S. Humphreys, From Saladin to the Mongols: The Ayyubids of Damascus 1193–1260 (Albany 1977); M. Chamberlain, ‘The Crusader Era and the Ayyubid Dynasty’, Cambridge History of Egypt, ed. C. F. Petry, vol. I (Cambridge 1998), R. S. Humphreys, ‘Ayyubids, Mamluks and the Latin East in the Thirteenth Century’, Mamluk Studies Review, 2 (1998); R. Irwin, The Middle East in the Middle Ages: The Early Mamluk Sultanate 1250–1382 (Carbondale 1986); N. Christie, Muslims and Crusaders (London 2014), chap. 7. On thirteenth-century eastern crusades, M. Angold, The Fourth Crusade (Harlow 2003); D. Queller and T. Madden, The Fourth Crusade (Philadelphia 1997); J. M. Powell, Anatomy of a Crusade 1213–1221 (Philadelphia 1986); M. Lower, The Barons’ Crusade (Philadelphia 2005); W. C. Jordan, Louis IX and the Challenge of the Crusade (Princeton 1979); P. Jackson, The Seventh Crusade (Aldershot 2007); C. Tyerman, God’s War: A New History of the Crusades (London 2006), chaps 15–17, 18, 19, 22–4. On the development of planning and logistics, C. Tyerman, How to Plan a Crusade: Reason and Religious War in the High Middle Ages (London 2015).
Chapter Seven
For accessible accounts of medieval Spain, A. MacKay, Spain in the Middle Ages: From Frontier to Empire 1000–1500 (London 1977); H. Kennedy, Muslim Spain and Portugal: A Political History of Al-Andalus (London 1996); R. Fletcher, Moorish Spain (London 1992); B. Reilly, The Medieval Spains (Cambridge 1993); P. Linehan, Spain 1157–1300: A Partible Inheritance (Oxford 2008); and, for the later Middle Ages, J. N. Hillgarth, The Spanish Kingdoms 1250–1516 (Oxford 1976–8), and generally, N. Housley, The Later Crusades: From Lyons to Alcazar 1274–1580 (Oxford 1992), chaps 9 and 10. On the taifa period, D. Wasserstein, The Rise and Fall of the Party Kings (Princeton 1985); R. Fletcher, The Quest for El Cid (London 1990). On the Reconquest, B. Reilly, The Contest of Christian and Muslim Spain 1031–1157 (Cambridge 1992); J. F. O’Callaghan, Reconquest and Crusade in Medieval Spain (Philadelphia 2003); and a classic teleological account by R. Menéndez Pidal, The Cid and His Spain (trans. London 1934, 1971 of España del Cid, Madrid 1929); but now cf. A. J. Kosto, ‘Reconquest, Renaissance and the Histories of Iberia c. 1000–1200’, European Transformations, ed. T. F. X. Noble and J. Van Eugen (Notre Dame 2012), pp. 93–116. On sources, P. Linehan, History and the Historians of Medieval Spain (Oxford 1993), and the useful collection of early Reconquest texts, The World of El Cid, ed. S. Barton and R. Fletcher (Manchester 2000). On papal bulls and ideology, J. Goñi Gaztambide, Historia de la bula de la cruzada en España (Vitoria 1958); J. Muldoon, Popes, Lawyers and Infidels (Liverpool 1979). A starting point for the Military Orders is A. Forey, The Military Orders (London 1992), pp. 23–32, and bibliography, pp. 253, 257, 258, 260; his article ‘The Military Orders and the Spanish Reconquest’, Traditio, 40 (1984). On wider perspectives, B. Kedar, Crusade and Mission: European Approaches Toward the Muslims (Princeton 1984); B. Catlos, The Victors and Vanquished: Christians and Muslims of Catalonia and Aragon (Cambridge 2004); F. Fernández-Armesto, Before Columbus: Exploration and Colonisation from the Mediterranean to the Atlantic 1229–1492 (London 1987).
Chapter Eight
The best introduction in English remains E. Christiansen, The Northern Crusades (2nd edn London 1997); for background, B. and P. Sawyer, Medieval Scandinavia (Minneapolis 1993); for the wider context, R. Bartlett, The Making of Europe (London 1993). Narratives can be found in W. Urban’s quartet, The Livonian Crusade (Washington DC 1981); The Prussian Crusade (Lanham 1980); The Samogitian Crusade (Chicago 1989); The Baltic Crusade (2nd edn Chicago 1994). There has been a recent revival of interest in the Baltic crusades, not least from Scandinavian scholars, in numerous collections of essays, for example, Crusade and Conversion on the Baltic Frontier 1150–1500, ed. A. V. Murray (Aldershot 2001); Crusading and Chronicle Writing on the Medieval Baltic Frontier, ed. M. Tamm et al. (Farnham 2011). On conversion, N. Blomkvist, The Discovery of the Baltic (Leiden 2005). On papal policy, I. Fonnesberg-Schmidt, The Popes and the Baltic Crusades 1147–1254 (Leiden 2007). The ideological background is sketched by F. Lotter, ‘The Crusading Idea and the Conquest of the Region East of the Elbe’, Medieval Frontier Societies, ed. R. Bartlett and A. MacKay (Oxford 1989), pp. 267–306. For Denmark as a ‘crusading state’, the work of K. V. Jensen, esp. ‘Denmark and the Second Crusade: The Formation of a Crusader State?’, The Second Crusade, ed. J. Phillips and M. Hoch (Manchester 2001), pp. 164–79. On the Teutonic Knights, another W. Urban narrative, The Teutonic Knights (London 2003); more recent and scholarly, The Teutonic Order in Prussia and Livonia, ed. R. Czaja et al. (Cologne 2015); for their decadence, M. Burleigh, Prussian Society and the German Order (Cambridge 1984), and, generally, idem, ‘The Military Orders in the Baltic’, New Cambridge Medieval History, vol. V, ed. D. Abulafia (Cambridge 1999). S. Turnbull, The Crusader Castles of the Teutonic Knights (London 2003–4), has not entirely speculative illustrated reconstructions. The environmental context and consequences are being reassessed by field research currently being conducted under Professor Aleks Pluskowski of Reading University; see A. Pluskowski, The Archaeology of the Prussian Crusade: Holy War and Colonisation (Abingdon 2013). For Baltic crusaders, W. Paravicini, Die Preussenreissen des europäischen Adels (Sigmaringen 1989–95); for English involvement, see T. Guard, Chivalry, Kingship and Crusade (Woodbridge 2013).
Chapter Nine
In general the work of N. Housley, The Italian Crusades (Oxford 1982); ‘Crusades against Christians’, Crusade and Settlement, ed. P. Edbury (Cardiff 1985); The Avignon Papacy and the Crusades (Oxford 1986); The Later Crusades (Oxford 1992), chap. 8; Religious Warfare in Europe 1400–1536 (Oxford 2002). On the papacy, R. Rist, The Papacy and Crusading in Europe 1198–1245 (London 2009). For political crusades, E. T. Kennan, ‘Innocent III and the First Political Crusade’, Traditio, XXVII (1971), and ‘Innocent III, Gregory IX and Political Crusades’, Reform and Authority in the Medieval and Reformation Church, ed. G. F. Lytle (Washington, DC 1981). For papal ideology, J. Riley-Smith, What Were the Crusades? (London 1992); J. R. Strayer, ‘The Political Crusades of the Thirteenth Century’, History of the Crusades, gen. ed. K. Setton, vol. II (Madison 1969). For different nuances, C. J. Tyerman, ‘The Holy Land and the Crusades of the Thirteenth and Fourteenth Centuries’, Crusade and Settlement, ed. P. Edbury (Cardiff 1985); The Invention of the Crusades (London 1998); God’s War: A New History of the Crusades (London 2006). On the Cathars and Albigensian crusades, M. Barber, The Cathars (London 2000), and, for a decent narrative, J. Sumption, The Albigensian Crusade (London 1978); for the vigorous arguments over Catharism, Cathars in Question, ed. A. Sennis (Woodbridge 2016). On criticism, see the contrasting P. Throop, Criticism of the Crusade (Amsterdam 1940), and the more apologist E. Siberry, Criticism of Crusading 1095–1274 (Oxford
1985), but now the robust M. Aurell, Des Chrétiens contre les croisades (Paris 2013), and H. E. Mayer, The Crusades, trans. J. Gillingham (Oxford 1988), pp. 320–1.
Chapter Ten
On Louis IX, J. Richard, St Louis: Crusader King of France, trans. J. Birrell (Cambridge 1992); J. Le Goff, St Louis (Paris 1996); M. C. Gaposchkin, The Making of St Louis (Ithaca, NY 2008); M. Lower, ‘Conversion and St Louis’ Last Crusade’, Journal of Ecclesiastical History, 58 (2007), 211–31, and The Tunis Crusade of 1270 (Oxford 2018); W. C. Jordan, Louis IX and the Challenge of the Crusade (Princeton 1979). On the crusades post-1274, S. Schein, Fideles Crucis: The Papacy, the West, and the Recovery of the Holy Land 1274–1314 (Oxford 1991); A. Leopold, How to Recover the Holy Land (Aldershot 2000); C. Tyerman, The Practices of Crusading (Farnham 2013), articles I–V and IX; N. Housley, The Later Crusades (Oxford 1992), esp. chap. 1. Still useful, A. S. Atiya, The Crusade in the Later Middle Ages (London 1938); on Cyprus, P. W. Edbury, The Kingdom of Cyprus and the Crusades 1191–1374 (Cambridge 1991); on trade embargos, S. Stantchev, Spiritual Rationality: Papal Embargo as Cultural Practice (Oxford 2014); in general, K. Setton, The Papacy and the Levant (Philadelphia 1976), vol. I. On the Mongol context, P. Jackson, The Mongol and the West 1221–1410 (London 2005), and The Mongols and the Islamic World (London 2017).
Chapter Eleven
For the western crusade perspective, N. Housley’s The Later Crusades (Oxford 1992), Religious Warfare in Europe 1400–1536 (Oxford 2002) and Crusading and the Ottoman Threat (Oxford 2012) are crucial. Also useful are the collected essays he has edited, Crusading in the Fifteenth Century (Basingstoke 2004), Reconfiguring the Fifteenth-Century Crusade (Basingstoke 2017), and his edited Documents on the Later Crusades 1274–1588 (Basingstoke 1996). For a recent Pontic and Danubian perspective, A. Pilat and O. Cristea, The Ottoman Threat and Crusading on the Eastern Border of Christendom during the 15th Century (Leiden 2018). On papal policy, B. Weber, Lutter contre les Turcs: Les formes nouvelles de la croisade pontificale au xve siècle (Rome 2013), and on embargos, S. K. Stantchev, Spiritual Rationality: Papal Embargo as Cultural Practice (Oxford 2014); on Burgundy and the crusade, J. Paviot’s article in Crusading in the Fifteenth Century and his Les Ducs de Bourgogne, la croisade et l’Orient (fin de XIVe siècle–XVe siècle) (Paris 2003); on crusade liturgy, A. Linder, Raising Arms: Liturgy in the Struggle to Liberate Jerusalem in the Later Middle Ages (Turnhout 2003); on the end of the crusade, G. Poumarède, Pour finir avec la croisade (Paris 2004); on ideas and polemics, N. Bisaha, Creating East and West: Renaissance Humanists and the Ottoman Turks (Philadelphia 2004); J. Hankins, ‘Renaissance Crusaders’, Dumbarton Oaks Papers, 49 (1995), 111–207; C. Tyerman, The Debate on the Crusades (Manchester 2011), and God’s War: A New History of the Crusades (London 2006), chaps 25 and 26; now on Mézières, Philippe de Mézières and his Age, ed. R. Blumenfield-Kosinski and K. Petkov (Leiden 2011), and, as an example of his work, C. W. Coopland’s translation Letter to King Richard II (Liverpool 1975); on Burgundy, J. Paviot, Les ducs de Bourgogne, la croisade et l’Orient (Paris 2003); on the Ottomans, C. Kafadar, Between Two Worlds: The Construction of the Ottoman State (Berkeley 1995); C. Imber, The Ottoman Empire 1300–1650 (Basingstoke 2009), and his edited volume of documents, The Crusade of Varna 1443–45 (Aldershot 2006); for Byzantium, D. Nicol, The Last Centuries of Byzantium 1261–1453 (Cambridge 1983), J. Harris, The End of Byzantium (London 2010); in general, the pioneering A. S. Atiya, The Crusade in the Later Middle Ages (London 1938), is more than an antiquarian curio; on the Hospitallers of Rhodes, A. Luttrell, The Hospitallers of Rhodes and their Mediterranean World (Aldershot 1992).
Chapter Twelve
For details and some relevant discussion, N. Housley, The Later Crusades (Oxford 1992); Crusading and the Ottoman Threat 1453–1505 (Oxford 2012); essays in his edited volume Crusading in the Fifteenth Century (Basingstoke 2004); especially Religious Warfare in Europe 1400–1536 (Oxford 2002); and ‘Indulgences for Crusading 1417–1517’, in Promissory Notes on the Treasury of Merits, ed. R. Swanson (Leiden 2006); J. Goñi Gaztambide, Historia de la bula de la cruzada en España (Vitoria 1958); for factual details, K. Setton, The Papacy and the Levant 1204–1571 (Philadelphia 1976), which ranges beyond the eastern Mediterranean; J. Paviot, ed., Les projets de croisade. Géostrategie et diplomatie européen du XIVe au XVIIe siècle (Toulouse 2014); G. Poumarède, Pour finir avec la croisade. Mythes et réalités de la lutte contre les Turcs au XVIe et XVIIe siècles (Paris 2004); J. W. Bohnstedt, The Infidel Scourge of God: The Turkish Menace as Seen by German Pamphleteers of the Reformation Era (Philadelphia 1968); M. J. Heath, Crusading Commonplaces: La Noue, Lucinge and Rhetoric (Geneva 1986); for some early modern ideas, C. Tyerman, The Debate on the Crusades (Manchester 2011), chap. 2.
Chapter Thirteen
For crusades historiography, C. Tyerman, The Debate on the Crusades (Manchester 2011); G. Constable, ‘The Historiography of the Crusades’, in his Crusaders and Crusading in the Twelfth Century (Aldershot 2008); J. Richard, ‘National Feeling and the Legacy of the Crusades’, Palgrave Advances in the Crusades, ed. H. Nicholson (Basingstoke 2005); N. Housley, Contesting the Crusades (Oxford 2006); R. Ellenblum, Crusader Castles and Modern Histories (Cambridge 2007); for modern impact, E. Siberry, The New Crusaders (Aldershot 2000), and ‘Images of the Crusades in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries’, Oxford Illustrated History of the Crusades, ed. J. Riley-Smith (Oxford 1995); on Jewish memory, R. Chazan, European Jewry and the First Crusade (London 1987); on Islam and the crusades, C. Hillenbrand, The Crusades: Islamic Perspectives (Edinburgh 1999); E. Sivan ‘Modern Arab Historiography of the Crusades’, Asian and African Studies, 8 (1972); P. Cobb, The Race for Paradise (Oxford 2014); and now articles in Part IV, ‘Cultural Memory’, in Remembering the Crusades and Crusading, ed. M. Cassidy-Welch (London 2017).
INDEX
Abbasids, Caliphs (i)
Absalon, archbishop of Lund (i)
Acre, as capital (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v)
fall of 1291 (i), (ii)
siege of 1189–91 (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii)
Adhemar, bishop of Le Puy (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v)
Adil, al-, sultan of Egypt (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi)
Afdal, al-, Egyptian vizier (i), (ii)
Afonso, king of Portugal (i), (ii)
Agnes of Courtenay, divorced wife of King Amalric of Jerusalem (i)
Aigues Mortes (i), (ii), (iii)
Aimery of Lusignan, king of Cyprus and Jerusalem (i), (ii), (iii)
Ain Jalut, battle of 1260 (i)
Alarcos, battle of 1195 (i)
Albert of Buxtehude, bishop of Riga (i), (ii), (iii)
Alcazar, battle of 1578 (i), (ii)
Alexander II, pope (i)
Alexander III, pope (i), (ii), (iii)
Alexander IV, pope (i), (ii)
Alexander VI, pope (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v)
Alexius I Comnenus, Byzantine emperor (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii), (viii), (ix), (x)
Alexius III Angelus, Byzantine emperor (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v)
Alexius IV Angelus, Byzantine emperor (i), (ii), (iii), (iv)
Alfonso I, king of Aragon-Navarre (i)
Alfonso V, king of Aragon (i)
Alfonso VI, king of León-Castile (i), (ii), (iii)
Alfonso VII, king of Castile (i), (ii)
Alfonso VIII, king of Castile (i), (ii), (iii), (iv)
Alfonso IX, king of León (i), (ii)
Alfonso XI, king of Castile (i)
Alfonso-Jordan, count of Toulouse (i)
Alfred, king of Wessex (i)
Algeciras, siege of 1344 (i)
Alice, countess of Blois (i)
Almeria (i), (ii), (iii)
Almohads, Berber fundamentalists (i), (ii), (iii)
Almoravids, Berber fundamentalists (i)
Alp Arslan, Seljuk sultan (i), (ii)
alum mines at Tolfa paying for crusade (i)
Amadeus VI, count of S
avoy (i), (ii), (iii)
Amalric, king of Jerusalem (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii), (viii), (ix), (x)
Amaury of Montfort, claimant to county of Toulouse (i)