The Penguin History of Modern Russia

by Robert Service

  2 Neizvestnaya Rossiya, no. 1, p. 287 for the notes taken by A. N. Shelepin.

  3 IA, no. 1 (1993), pp. 6–7.

  4 Ibid., pp. 7–15.

  5 F. Burlatskii, Vozhdi i sovetniki, p. 213; G. Arbatov, Svidetel’stvo sovremennika, p. 118; Neizvestnaya Rossiya, vol. 1, p. 286.

  6 F. Burlatskii, Vozhdi i sovetniki, p. 220.

  7 L. Alekseeva, Inakomyslie v SSSR, pp. 201–6.

  8 See R. Medvedev, Lichnost i epokha. Politicheskii portret L. I. Brezhneva, p. 279.

  9 F. Burlatskii, Vozhdi i sovetniki, p. 285.

  10 VIKPSS, no. 4 (1991), p. 100.

  11 F. Burlatskii, Vozhdi i sovetniki, p. 299.

  12 See Arbatov, Svidetel’stvo sovremennika, p. 120 for some hearsay evidence.

  13 D. B. Diamond, L. W. Bettis and R. E. Ramsson, ‘Agricultural Production’, p. 145.

  14 M. Weitzman, ‘Industrial Production’, p. 180.

  15 R. Pikhoya, ‘Chekhoslovakia, 1968’, pp. 11, 14, 17.

  16 L. Alekseeva, Inakomyslie, pp. 213–14.

  17 P. J. S. Duncan, The Soviet Union and India, ch. 2.

  18 B. Nahaylo and V. Swoboda, The Soviet Disunion, pp. 150–51.

  19 Ibid., pp. 188–9.

  20 R. Medvedev, Lichnost’ i epokha, p. 140.

  PART FOUR

  20 ‘Developed Socialism’ (1970–1982)

  1 Moskovskie novosti, no. 10 (1990).

  2 A. Nove, ‘Agriculture’, p. 171.

  3 Ibid., p. 170.

  4 M. S. Gorbachëv, Zhizn’ i reformy, vol. 1, pp. 195–7.

  5 K. Wädekin, ‘Agriculture’, p. 119.

  6 Vladimir Medvedev, Chelovek za spinoi, pp. 144, 149.

  7 Ye. Chazov, Zdorov’e i vlast’, pp. 120–22.

  8 R. Hill and P. Frank, The Soviet Communist Party, p. 150.

  9 R. Medvedev, Lichnost’ i epokha, pp. 182–4.

  10 A. B. Evans, Soviet Marxism-Leninism, pp. 105–6.

  11 SXXIV, vol. 1, p. 55.

  12 Konstitutsiya SSSR, p. 1.

  13 S. Whitefield, Industrial Power and the Soviet State, ch. 3.

  14 A. Nove, An Economic History, p. 377.

  15 M. Matthews, Class and Society in Soviet Russia, p. 89.

  16 Narodnoe khozyaistvo v 1980 g., p. 406.

  17 S. Hedlund, Crisis in Soviet Agriculture, p. 173.

  18 N. Grant, Soviet Education, p. 116.

  19 J. Miller, ‘The Communist Party: Trends and Problems’, p. 6.

  20 M. Galeotti, Afghanistan. The Soviet Union’s Last War, pp. 10–12.

  21 Privilege and Alienation

  1 Z. Medvedev, A Question of Madness.

  2 A. D. Sakharov, Progress, Co-Existence and Intellectual Freedom.

  3 R. Medvedev, On Socialist Democracy.

  4 A. I. Solzhenitsyn, Letter to the Soviet Leaders.

  5 G. Hosking, Beyond Socialist Realism. Soviet Fiction since Ivan Denisovich, ch. 3.

  6 M. Friedberg, Russian Classics in Soviet Jackets, pp. 170–76.

  7 I witnessed this in 1974 in the Leningrad Library of the Academy of Sciences.

  8 See R. Hill and P. Frank, The Soviet Communist Party, p. 36.

  9 Narodnoe khozyaistvo v 1990 g., p. 188.

  10 M. Matthews, Class and Society in Soviet Russia, pp. 81–9.

  11 S. White, Political Culture and Soviet Politics, p. 133.

  12 I have yet to see a copy of this decree, but was informed about it in the Moscow bookshop (now a private video-shop: o tempora, o mores!) on Bogdan Khmelnitsii Street in 1989.

  13 D. Lane, The End of Inequality?, pp. 104–6.

  14 Calculated from V. Kozlov, The Peoples of the Soviet Union, pp. 94, 206.

  15 I am grateful to Archie Brown for elucidating the Yakovlev affair.

  16 Moskovskie novosti, nos. 8–9 (1990).

  17 R. Hill and P. Frank, The Soviet Communist Party, p. 63.

  18 W. E. Butler, ‘Techniques of Law Reform in the Soviet Union’, p. 210.

  19 See D. Volkogonov, Lenin: politicheskii portret, vol. 2, pp. 399–401.

  20 R. Medvedev, Lichnost’ i epokha, pp. 298, 300.

  22 Towards Reform (1982–1985)

  1 M. S. Gorbachëv, Zhizn’ i reformy, vol. 1, p. 148.

  2 R. Medvedev, Gensek s Lubyanki, p. 13.

  3 F. Burlatskii, Vozhdi i sovetniki, p. 35.

  4 G. Arbatov, Svidetel’stvo sovremennika, p. 139.

  5 M. S. Gorbachëv, Zhizn’ i reformy, vol. 1, p. 189.

  6 R. Medvedev, Gensek, p. 132.

  7 I. S. Klemashev, Andropov’s doctor, records this in Fenomen Andropova, p. 20.

  8 Yu. V. Andropov, ‘Uchenie Karla Marksa i nekotorye voprosy sotsialisticheskogo stroitel’stva’, Kommunist, no. 3 (1983).

  9 Pravda, 1 February 1983.

  10 N. Ryzhkov, Perestroika: istoriya predatel’stv, pp. 37, 41. For a general account see A. Brown, The Gorbachev Factor, pp. 64–5.

  11 N. Ryzhkov, Perestroika, p. 61. Gorbachëv says that Politburo candidate member V. I. Dolgikh, too, was involved in the leadership of the research team: Zhizn’ i reformy, vol. 1, p. 233.

  12 N. Ryzhkov, Perestroika, p. 47.

  13 See R. Medvedev’s account in Gensek, pp. 93.

  14 T. Zaslavskaya, ‘The Novosibirsk Report’, p. 88–108.

  15 G. Arbatov, Svidetel’stvo sovremennika, p. 322.

  16 See M. Walker, The Cold War, p. 276.

  17 A. Vol’skii, Literaturnaya gazeta, 4 July 1990. The episode is still rather obscure: Gorbachëv claims not to have known about it until after Chernenko’s selection as General Secretary, Zhizn’ i reformy, vol. 1, p. 245. See also Brown, The Gorbachev Factor, pp. 67–9.

  18 R. Medvedev, Gensek, pp. 219–22.

  19 See R. Sakwa, Gorbachev and his Reforms, p. 11.

  20 Narodnoe khozyaistvo v 1983 g., p. 129; Narodnoe Khozyaistvo v 1984 g., p. 229.

  21 A. S. Chernyaev, Shest’ let s Gorbachëvym, pp. 12–13.

  22 N. Ryzhkov, Perestroika, pp. 37, 61.

  23 Istochnik, no. o [sic] (1993), pp. 68–72.

  24 It was widely reported that Gromyko said that Gorbachëv had a ‘handsome smile but an iron bite’: see A. Roxburgh, The Second Russian Revolution, p. 207. But Gromyko’s quip does not appear in any text of his speech so far published.

  25 A. Brown, The Gorbachev Factor, pp. 121–6.

  26 M. S. Gorbachëv, Zhizn’ i reformy, vol. 1, p. 38.

  27 Ibid., p. 74.

  28 G. Shakhnazarov, Tsena svobody, p. 339.

  29 L’Unità, 9 April 1985.

  30 M. Gorbačov and Z. Mlynář, Reformátoři Nebývají št’astni, p. 39. I am grateful to Kieran Williams for alerting me to the existence of this book and for helping me with the Czech language.

  31 M. S. Gorbachëv, Zhizn’ i reformy, vol. 1, p. 210.

  32 M. Gorbačov and Z. Mlynář, Reformátoři, p. 39.

  33 M. S. Gorbachëv, Zhizn’ i reformy, vol. 1, pp. 165, 169.

  34 Ibid., p. 236.

  35 Ibid., p. 265: ‘Tak dal’she zhit’ nel’zya’.

  36 I am grateful to Archie Brown for pointing out the significance of the location of the conversation.

  37 Istochnik, no. o [sic] (1993), p. 74.

  38 E. Shevardnadze, Moi vybor, p. 79.

  39 Please note that these figures relate to full members of the Politburo.

  40 A. Brown, The Gorbachev Factor, p. 77.

  41 M. S. Gorbachëv, Zhizn’ i reformy, vol. 1, p. 210.

  42 N. Ryzhkov, Perestroika, p. 92.

  43 M. S. Gorbachëv, Izbrannye rechi i stat’i, vol. 2, p. 212.

  44 Party Programme: SXXVII, vol. 1, p. 555.

  45 T. Colton, The Dilemma of Reform in the Soviet Union, p. 91.

  46 M. Gorbačov and Z. Mlynář, Reformátoři, p. 69.

  47 M. Walker, The Cold War, p. 273.

  48 See note 46.

  49 A. S. Chernyaev, Shest’ let s Gorbachëvym, p. 57.

  50 Ibid., p. 121.

  51 SXXVII, vol. 2, p. 32.
>
  52 Z. Medvedev, Nuclear Disaster in the Urals.

  53 M. S. Gorbachëv, Zhizn’ i reformy, vol. 1, p. 304.

  54 R. Service, The End of the Cold War, 1985–1991, pp. 53–64.

  23 Glasnost and Perestroika (1986–1988)

  1 J. Graffy, ‘The Literary Press’, pp. 107–36.

  2 A. D. Sakharov, Memoirs, p. 615.

  3 In Russian, therefore, razvivayushchiisya sotsializm replaced razvitoi sotsializm: R. Service, ‘Gorbachev’s Reforms: The Future in the Past’, p. 279.

  4 Ibid., p. 278.

  5 Ibid., pp. 277–8, 283–4.

  6 A. Smith, Russia and the World Economy, pp. 104–6.

  7 Materialy plenuma Tsentral’nogo Komiteta KPSS.

  8 Pravda, 26 June 1987.

  9 Gorbachëv has suggested that the illness may have been the result of Yeltsin deliberately harming himself with a pair of scissors: Zhizn’ i reformy, vol. 1, p. 374.

  10 M. S. Gorbachev, Perestroika. New Thinking for Our Country and the World, pp. 38–41.

  11 Ibid., p. 161.

  12 Wisely he agreed to drop the long-winded slogan, ‘socialism in the process of self-development’, which he had introduced at the January 1987 Central Committee plenum: see Vadim Medvedev, V komande Gorbachëva, p. 67.

  13 A. Brown, The Gorbachev Factor, pp. 33–4.

  14 SXXVII, vol. 1, p. 590.

  15 G. Shakhnazarov, Tsena svobody, p. 339; R. Gorbachëva, Ya nadeyus’, p. 23.

  16 R. Kaiser, The Geography of Nationalism, p. 176.

  17 M. S. Gorbachëv, Gody trudnykh reshenii, 1985–1992, p. 106.

  18 A. S. Chernyaev, Shest’ let, p. 183.

  19 G. Shakhnazarov, Tsena svobody, p. 341.

  20 Devyatnadsataya vsesoyuznaya konferentsiya KPSS, vol. 1, p. 58.

  21 Ibid., vol. 2, pp. 82–8.

  22 Ibid., p. 186.

  23 M. Gorbačov and Z. Mlynář, Reformátoři Nebývají št’astni, p. 69.

  24 E. Pryce-Jones, The War That Never Was, p. 307.

  25 M. S. Gorbachëv, Izbrannye stat’i i rechi, vol. 4, p. 278.

  26 Ibid., vol. 7, pp. 150–75.

  24 Imploding Imperium (1989)

  1 M. S. Gorbachëv, Zhizn’ i reformy, vol. 1, p. 334.

  2 A. Smith, ‘Foreign Trade’, p. 138.

  3 P. Hanson, ‘The Economy’, p. 99.

  4 G. Schröder, ‘Soviet consumption in the 1980s’, p. 97.

  5 G. Shakhnazarov, Tsena svobody, p. 216.

  6 G. Schröder, ‘Soviet consumption in the 1980s’, p. 93.

  7 S. White, After Gorbachev, p. 127.

  8 E. C. Cook, ‘Agriculture’s role in the Soviet economic crisis’, p. 197.

  9 A. Brown, The Gorbachev Factor, p. 144.

  10 J. Channon, ‘The privatisation of Russian Agriculture’.

  11 D. Filtzer, Soviet Workers and the Collapse of Perestroika, pp. 94–101.

  12 N. Ryzhkov, Perestroika, p. 297.

  13 Ibid., p. 301.

  14 S. White, After Gorbachev, p. 52.

  15 Ibid., pp. 52–3.

  16 Pravda, 28 May 1989.

  17 A. Brown, The Gorbachev Factor, pp. 264–7.

  18 G. A. Hosking, P. J. S. Duncan and J. Aves, The Road to Post-Communism, pp. 19–20, 76–7.

  19 A. Brown, The Gorbachev Factor, p. 6.

  20 V. A. Tishkov, ‘Assembleya natsii ili soyuznyi parlament?’, pp. 3–18; M. Buttino, ‘La fine dell’Unione Sovietica’, pp. 11–13.

  21 N. Ryzhkov, Perestroika, pp. 90–92.

  22 See the note by Brown, The Gorbachev Factor, p. 321.

  23 A. S. Chernyaev, Shest’ let, p. 251.

  25 Hail and Farewell (1990–1991)

  1 A. S. Chernyaev, Shest’ let, p. 319.

  2 Ibid., p. 356.

  3 I owe this point to Peter Duncan.

  4 Pravda, 5 February 1990.

  5 IT sKKPSS, no. 4 (1990), p. 61.

  6 A. S. Chernyaev, Shest’ let, p. 278.

  7 L. Sukhanov, Tri Goda s Yeltsinym, pp. 119–20.

  8 Narodnoe khozyaistvo v 1990 g., p. 348.

  9 Pravda, 14 December 1989.

  10 See G. A. Hosking, P. J. S. Duncan and J. Aves, The Road to Post-Communism, pp. 45–6.

  11 Chernyaev, Shest’ let, p. 442; Vadim Medvedev, V komande Gorbachëva, p. 185.

  12 Soyuz mozhno bylo sokhranit’, p. 111.

  13 A. Smith, Russia and the World Economy, pp. 118–19.

  14 V. Stepankov and Ye. Lisov, Kremlëvskii zagovor, p. 79.

  15 Sovetskaya Rossiya, 23 July 1991.

  16 There was a masculine undertone to the appeal, which was addressed specifically to ‘Brothers’: see ibid. Even Stalin had made his appeal to ‘Brothers and Sisters’ in 1941.

  17 Significantly, Judaism went unmentioned.

  18 V. Stepankov and Ye. Lisov, Kremlëvskii zagovor, p. 14; M. S. Gorbachev, The August Coup, p. 23.

  19 Smert’ zagovora. Belaya kniga, pp. 5–7.

  20 B. Yeltsin, The View from the Kremlin, p. 58.

  21 V. Stepankov and Ye. Lisov, Kremlëvskii zagovor, p. 152.

  22 Ibid., p. 165.

  23 Ibid., pp. 180, 184.

  24 Ibid., p. 209.

  25 Ibid.

  26 Izvestiya, 6 September 1991.

  27 B. Yeltsin, Against the Grain. An Autobiography, p. 15.

  28 Ibid., p. 22.

  29 Ibid., pp. 96–7.

  30 Ibid., pp. 55–6.

  31 B. Yeltsin, The View from the Kremlin, p. 192.

  32 S. Plokhy, The Last Empire: The Final Days of the Soviet Union, p. 176.

  33 G. Shakhnazarov, Tsena svobody, p. 297.

  34 Pravda, 27 November 1991.

  35 B. Yeltsin, The View from the Kremlin, p. 116.

  36 M. S. Gorbachëv, Dekabr’-91. Moya pozitsiya, pp. 119–20.

  PART FIVE

  26 Power and the Market (1992–1993)

  1 A. Aslund, How Russia Became a Market Economy, p. 188.

  2 R. Service, ‘Boris Yeltsin: Politics and Rhetoric’.

  3 Ibid.

  4 Ibid.

  5 V. Bakatin, Izbavlenie ot KGB, p. 199.

  6 Reported by J. Lloyd, Financial Times, 19 December 1991.

  7 Interview with E. A. Ryazanov, Moscow Channel One TV: 16 November 1994. I am grateful to Lindsey Hughes for bringing this to my notice.

  8 R. Service, ‘Boris El’cin: continuità e mutamento di un rivoluzionario democratico’, pp. 41–54.

  9 V. A. Mau, Ekonomika i vlast’, p. 92.

  10 Ibid., pp. 47–8.

  11 A. Aslund, How Russia Became a Market Economy, pp. 235–6, 251, 256.

  12 R. Sakwa, Russian Politics and Society, p. 57.

  13 A. Aslund, How Russia Became a Market Economy, p. 141.

  14 Ye. Gaidar, Gosudarstvo i evolyutsiya, p. 164.

  15 A. Aslund, How Russia Became a Market Economy, p. 278.

  16 J. Channon, Agrarian Reforms in Russia, 1992–1995, p. 4.

  17 A. Aslund, How Russia Became a Market Economy, p. 278.

  18 Ibid., p. 184.

  19 R. Kaiser, The Geography of Nationalism, p. 161.

  20 J. Lester, Modern Tsars and Princes. The Struggle for Hegemony in Russia, pp. 65–7.

  21 Rossiiskaya gazeta, 3 April 1992, pp. 1–2.

  22 B. Yeltsin, The View from the Kremlin, p. 236.

  23 Programma partii Liberal’no-demokraticheskoi partii, p. 1.

  24 Rossiiskaya gazeta, 6 May 1993.

  25 B. Yeltsin, The View from the Kremlin, p. 244.

  26 B. Clarke, An Empire’s New Clothes, pp. 234, 240.

  27 A. Aslund, How Russia Became a Market Economy, p. 198.

  28 This is admitted by Yeltsin in The View from the Kremlin, p. 255.

  29 Ibid., p. 278.

  30 A. Aslund, How Russia Became a Market Economy, p. 284.

  31 Ibid., p. 273.

  32 Ibid., p. 278.

  27 The Lowering of Expectations (1994–1999)

  1 R. Service, Russia: Experiment wit
h a People, pp. 113–14.

  2 NG-Stsenarii, January 2000.

  3 A. Korzhakov, Boris Yel’tsin: ot rassveta do zakata, pp. 210–12.

  4 R. Service, Russia: Experiment with a People, pp. 183–5.

  5 B. Yeltsin, Midnight Diaries, p. 25.

  6 A. Lieven, Chechnya. Tombstone of Russian Power, p. 176.

  7 P. Chaisty, Legislative Politics and Economic Power, p. 101.

  8 Ibid., p. 120.

  9 A. Lieven, Chechnya, pp. 58–60.

  10 Sotsial’noe polozhenie i uroven’ zhizni naseleniya Rossii, pp. 138–9 and 305. See also J. Eatwell et al., Transformation and Integration: Shaping the Future of Central and Eastern Europe, pp. 73 and 76.

  11 C. Freeland, Sale of the Century, pp. 166–8.

  12 G. Zyuganov, Rossiya i sovremennyi mir, pp. 17–18.

  13 O. Kryshtanovskaya and S. White, ‘From Soviet Nomenklatura to Russian Elite’.

  14 L. M. Drobizheva, Asimmetrichnaya federatsiya, p. 17.

  15 R. Service, Russia: Experiment with a People, p. 85.

  16 B. Granville and P. Oppenheimer, Russia’s Post-Communist Economy, p. 19.

  17 R. Service, Russia: Experiment with a People, p. 317.

  18 J. Channon, Agrarian Reforms in Russia, 1992–1995, pp. 1–5.

  19 R. Service, Russia: Experiment with a People, chapter 16.

  20 ‘8200’: song from Kostroma, Mon Amour.

  21 R. Marsh, Literature, History and Identity in Post-Soviet Russia, 1991–2006, pp. 548–9.

  22 R. Service, Russia: Experiment with a People, pp. 283–5.

  23 B. Yeltsin, Midnight Diaries, 386–7.

  28 Experimenting with Retrenchment (2000–2008)

  1 See the details in N. Gevorkyan, N. Timakova and A. Kolesnikov, Ot pervogo litsa. Peregovory s Vladimirom Putinym.

  2 Moskovskie novosti, 2 June 2000.

  3 R. Service, Russia: Experiment with a People, pp. 211–12.

  4 S. Whitefield, ‘Culture, Experience and State Identity: A Survey-Based Analysis of Russians, 1995–2003’, p. 132.

  5 T. Phillips, Beslan: The Tragedy of School No. 1, pp. 3–8.

  6 Witness statement of A. S. Voloshin, 29 April 2011, p. 6: High Court of Justice, Queen’s Bench Division, Commercial Court, Boris Abramovich Berezovsky and Roman Arkadevich Abramovich.

  7 P. Chaisty, Legislative Politics and Economic Power in Russia, p. 125.