4 Cartwright to Nicolson. 12 October 1911. G P Gooch and H W V Temperley (Eds.), British Documents on the Origins of the War: 1898-1914, Volume IX, The Balkan Wars, Part I, The Prelude: The Tripoli War (London; HMSO, 1933) p. 307. Sir Arthur Nicolson was the British Permanent Under-Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs from 1910–1916.
5 Edward J. Erickson,Defeat in Detail: the Ottoman Army in the Balkans, 1912-1913 (Westport, CN; Praeger, 2003) pp. 47-8. Hasan Kayalı, Arabs and Young Turks: Ottomanism, Arabism, and Islamism in the Ottoman Empire, 1908–1918 (Berkeley, CA; University of California Press, 1997) p. 111-12.
6 Giovanno Giolitti, Memorie della mia vita, con uno studio di Olindo Malagodi (Milano; Fratelli Treves, 1922) Volume II. p. 373-4.
7 Charles F Horne, Walter F Austin and Leonard P Ayres (Eds.), Source Records of the Great War, Volume 3, AD 1915 (Indianapolis, IN; The American Legion, 1931) p. 224.
8 E Alexander Powell, The New Frontiers Of Freedom: From The Alps To The Aegean (New York; Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1920) p. 138.
9 Giovanno Giolitti, Memorie della mia vita, con uno studio di Olindo Malagodi (Milano; Fratelli Treves, 1922) Volume II. p. 374.
10 Despatch dated 7 October 1911 from Vienna. The Pittsburg Press. 8 October 1911.
11 For accounts of this incident see: Samuel R Williamson, Austria-Hungary and the Origins of the First World War (London; Macmillan, 1991) pp. 789. Alfred von Wittich (Trans. Oliver L Spaulding), Marshal Conrad in the Preparation for War (Washington, DC; Army War College, 1936) pp. 6-7. Morris Beatus, The Views of Conrad von Hötzendorf: Politics, Diplomacy, and War, 1906-1914 [MA Thesis] (Madison, WI; University of Wisconsin, 1970) pp. 44-5. Lawrence Sondhaus,The Naval Policy of Austria-Hungary, 1867 - 1918: Navalism, Industrial Development, and the Politics of Dualism (West Lafayette, IN; Purdue University Press, 1994) p. 205. Gunther E Rothenberg, The Army of Francis Joseph (West Lafayette, IN; Purdue University Press, 1998) pp. 163-4.
12 Lawrence Sondhaus, The Naval Policy of Austria-Hungary, 1867-1918: Navalism, Industrial Development, and the Politics of Dualism (Lafayette, IN; Purdue University Press, 1994) p. 205.
13 Sergio Romano, La quarta sponda: la guerra di Libia, 1911-1912 (Milano; Bompiani, 1977) p. 67.
14 See: Mirella Tenderini and Michael Shandrick, The Duke of the Abruzzi: An Explorer’s Life (Seattle, WA; The Mountaineers, 1997).
15 Sergio Romano, La quarta sponda: la guerra di Libia, 1911-1912 (Milano; Bompiani, 1977) p. 66.
16 Wm Morton Fullerton, Problems of Power: A Study of International Politics from Sadowa to Kirk-Kilisse (New York, NY; Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1913) p. 290.
17 Prime Mnister Antonio Salandra on Italy’s entry into the Great War on the side of the Entente Powers. 23 May 1915. Charles F Horne, Walter F Austin and Leonard P Ayres (Eds.), Source Records of the Great War, Volume 3, AD 1915 (Indianapolis, IN; The American Legion, 1931) p. 224.
18 Haroon-ur Rasheed, Pakistan: The Successful Culmination (Lahore; Publishers Emporium, 1996) p. 478.
19 Rajendra Prasad, India Divided (Bombay; Hind Kitabs, 1947) p. 18.
20 Hardinge to Crewe. Letter dated 12 October 1912. Quoted in P Hardy, The Muslims of British Indian (Cambridge; Cambridge University Press, 1972) pp.182-83.
21 See: Muhammad Yusuf Abbasi, The Political Biography of Syed Ameer Ali (Lahore; Wajidalis, 1989).
22 According to the 1911 census, the total population of India amounted to 315,156,396, 244,267,542 or 77.5 per cent of which resided in directly ruled British territory and 70,888,854 or 22.5 per cent in the ‘native states.’ The Muslim population was calculated at 65,921,820, or just under 21 per cent, of the total. http://censusindia.gov.in/Census_And_You/old_report/Census_1911.html
23 Reproduced in: Shan Muhammad (Ed.), The Right Honourable Syed Ameer Ali: Political Writings (New Delhi; Ashish, 1989) pp. 244-5.
24 See: Azmi Özcan, Pan-Islamism: Indian Muslims, the Ottomans and Britain (1877-1924) (Leiden; Brill, 1997) pp. 139-145.
25 Abu Yusuf Alam, Muslims and Bengal Politics (1912-24) (Kolkata [Calcutta]; Raktakarabee, 2005) p. 155.
26 Azmi Özcan, Pan-Islamism: Indian Muslims, the Ottomans and Britain (1877-1924) (Leiden; Brill, 1997) p. 140.
27 Ishtiaq Ahmad, ‘Turkish-Pakistan Relations: Continuity and Change’ in Mehmet Tahiroglu and Tareq Y Ismael (Eds.), Turkey in the 21st Century: Changing Role in World Politics (Gazimagusa; Eastern Mediterranean University Press, 2000) pp. 143-144.
28 M Naeem Qureshi, Pan-Islam in British Indian Politics: A Study of the Khilafat Movement, 1918-1924 (Leiden; Brill, 1999) p. 55. See also: Stuart E Brown, ‘Modernism, Association, and Pan-Islamism in the Thought of Ali Bash Hanbah’ in Donald P Little (Ed.), Essays on Islamic Civilization: Presented to Niyazi Berkes (Leiden; Brill, 1976) p. 76.
29 Hardinge to Nicolson. 15 October 1911. UK NA FO 800/351, Miscellaneous Correspondence Volume 5, September-November 1911.
30 John Charmley, Splendid Isolation?: Britain and the Balance of Power 1874-1914 (London; Hodder & Stoughton, 1999) p. 325.
31 David Lloyd George, War Memoirs. Two-volume edition (London; Odhams, 1938) Vol. I pp. 27-8.
32 Winston S Churchill, The Grand Alliance (Boston, MA; Houghton Mifflin, 1950) p. 71.
33 For details see: C J Lowe, ‘Grey and the Tripoli War’ in F H Hinsley (Ed.), British Foreign Policy under Sir Edward Grey (Cambridge; Cambridge University Press, 1977) pp. 315-323.
34 Grey to Rodd. 29 September 1911. G P Gooch and H W V Temperley (Eds.), British Documents on the Origins of the War: 1898-1914, Volume IX, The Balkan Wars, Part I, The Prelude: The Tripoli War (London; HMSO, 1933) p. 285.
35 Raymond Poincaré (Trans. Sir George Arthur), The Memoirs of Raymond Poincaré, Volume I: 1912 (London: William Heinemann, 1926) p. 19.
CHAPTER FIVE
1 Enver Pasa, Um Tripolis (Munchen, Hugo Bruckmann, 1918) p. 9.
2 John Baldry, ‘Anglo-Italian Rivalry in Yemen and As r 1900-1934’ in Die Welt des Islams, New Series, Vol. 17, Issue 1/4 (1976 - 1977) p. 155.
3 Mehmed Selahaddin, ttihad ve Terakki’nin Kurulu u ve Osmanlı Devleti’nin Yıkılı ı Hakkında Bildiklerim (Istanbul; nkilab, 1989) p. 38.
4 Joshua Teitelbaum,The Rise and Fall of the Hashimite Kingdom of Arabia (New York; New York University Press, 2001) p. 64.
5 For brief accounts see: Sergio Romano, La quarta sponda: la guerra di Libia, 1911-1912 (Milano; Bompiani, 1977) p. 64. n. 3. Giorgio Giorgerini and Augusto Nani (Eds.), Gli incrociatori italiani, 1861-1975 (Roma; Ufficio storico marina militare, 1976) pp. 144, 180.
6 One, Regina Elena, did not join his command until 5 October 1911.
7 Unless otherwise stated, all information on naval operations is derived from: Giovanni Roncagli and Camillo Manfroni (Eds.), Guerra italo-turca (1911-1912): Cronistoria delle operazioni navali. Two Volumes: Vol. I: Dalle origini al decreto di sovranità su la Libia. Vol. II: Dal decreto di sovranità su la Libia alla conclusione della pace. (Milano/Roma; Hoepli/Poligrafico Editorial, 1918/1926).
8 Tullio Irace, With the Italians in Tripoli: The Authentic History of the Turco-Italian War (London; John Murray, 1912) p. 3.
9 Gianpaolo Ferraioli, Politica e diplomazia in Italia tra XIX e XX secolo: Vita di Antonino di San Giuliano (1852-1914) (Soveria Mannelli; Rubbettino, 2007) p. 357.
10 Enver Pasa, Um Tripolis (Munchen, Hugo Bruckmann, 1918). Written in German, a language in which Enver was competent, and couched in terms of a diary with dated entries, it is not however thought that it was compiled contemporaneously. Rather it was probably constructed later using reports and letters that Enver had sent to colleagues and friends in Germany during his time in the theatre of war. This perhaps accounts for the fact that there appears to be no original Turkish text, despite an acknowledgment to ‘Friedrich Perzynski’ for transcription and, possibly, translation. It was translated into Turkish and published as part of a larger work on the Ottoman forces during the war by Orhan Kolo lu in 1979 [Trablusgarp Sava ı ve Türk Subayları 1911-12 (Ankara; Bas�
�n Yayın Genel Müdürlü ü, 1979) and then into Arabic by Abdelmola Salah al-Hariri the following year. An Italian translation by Salvatore Bono, with additional notes and appendices, appeared in 1986 [Enver Pascià: diario della guerra libica (Bologna; Cappelli, 1986)] but so far no English language edition has been published.
11 Enver Pasa, Um Tripolis (Munchen, Hugo Bruckmann, 1918) pp. 9-10.
12 The New York Times, 30 September 1911.
13 Sukru Hanioglu (Ed.), Kendi Mektuplarinda Enver Pasa (Istanbul; Der Yayınları, 1989) pp. 75-6.
14 Francis McCullagh, Italy’s War for a Desert: Being Some Experiences of a War-Gorrespondent with the Italians in Tripoli (London; Herbert & Daniel, 1913) p. 48.
15 Harvey E Goldberg, Jewish Life in Muslim Libya: Rivals & Relatives (Chicago, IL; University of Chicago Press, 1990) p. 50.
16 Mordecai ha Cohen, Higgid Mordecai (Jerusalem: Ben-Zvi Institute, 1978) pp. 185, 340-343, 348.
17 For an account of these troops during the initial phases of the ‘Libyan enterprise’ see: L Fulvi, T Marcon, and O Miozzi, Le fanterie di marina italiane (Roma; Ufficio storico della Marina militare, 1998). pp. 37-54.
18 Great Britain Naval Intelligence Division, A Handbook of Libya (London; HMSO, 1917) p. 138.
19 William C Askew, Europe and Italy’s Acquisition of Libya: A study in Mediterranean Politics and European Alignments, 1911-1912 (Durham, NC; Duke University Press, 1942) p. 28. Lisa Anderson, The State and Social Transformation in Tunisia and Libya, 1830-1980 (Princeton, NJ; Princeton University Press, 1986) pp. 189-90.
20 Chris B. Rooney, ‘The international significance of British naval missions to the Ottoman Empire, 1908-14’ in Middle Eastern Studies, Volume 34, Issue 1 January 1998. pp. 1-29. Bernd Langensiepen and Ahmet Güleryüz (James Cooper Ed. and Trans.), The Ottoman Steam Navy, 1828-1923 (London; Conway Maritime Press, 1995) p. 197.
21 Benito Mussolini in the Popolo d’ Italia, 14 January 1915.
22 Augustus Henry Keane, Africa Volume I: North Africa (London; Edward Stanford, 1895) p 169.
23 Daily Express. 11 October 1911.
24 Pollio, ‘Memoria sulla occupazione della Tripolitania e della Cirenaica,’ 19 September 1911. Archivio dell’Ufficio Storico dello Stato Maggiore dell’Esercito: Carteggio Libia. Raccoglitore I, Fascicolo 14.
25 San Giuliano to Spingardi. 24 September 1911. Ministero degli Affari Esteri, Archivio di Gabinetto Casella 44, No. 40.
26 Archivio dell’Ufficio Storico dello Stato Maggiore dell’Esercito: Carteggio Libia, 215/2: Studio per l’occupazione della Tripolitania, August 1911.
27 See: ‘The Landing at Derna’ in The RUSI Journal, Volume 56, Issue 413 July 1912, page 890.
28 Ali Abdullatif Ahmida, The Making of Modern Libya: State formation, Colonization, and Resistance, 1830-1932 (Albany, NY; State University of New York Press, 1994) pp. 75-6.
29 Tullio Irace, With the Italians in Tripoli: The Authentic History of the Turco-Italian War (London; John Murray, 1912) pp. 35-36.
30 Mohammed Bescir Fergiani, The Libyan Jamahiriya (Tripoli; Dar Al-Fergiani, 1976) p. 99
31 W K McClure, Italy in North Africa: An Account of the Tripoli Enterprise (London; Constable, 1913) pp. 56-7.
32 Tullio Irace, With the Italians in Tripoli: The Authentic History of the Turco-Italian War (London; John Murray, 1912) p. 51.
33 The Parliamentary Debates (Official Report), Fifth Series, Volume XXX (London; HMSO, 1911) p. 1794.
34 Lord Keyes, Amphibious Warfare and Combined Operations (Cambridge; Cambridge University Press, 1943) p. 7.
35 Arianna Sara De Rose, Marcello Piacentini: opere 1903-1926 (Modena; Panini, 1995) p. 117.
36 Guido Bonsaver, Censorship and Literature in Fascist Italy (Toronto; University of Toronto Press, 2007) p. 15.
37 Caneva to Spingardi. 18 October 1911. Archivio dell’Ufficio Storico dello Stato Maggiore dell’Esercito. 2/10.
38 Reuters Telegram from Tripoli. 13 October 1911. Reproduced internationally.
39 Francis McCullagh, Italy’s War for a Desert: Being Some Experiences of a War-Correspondent with the Italians in Tripoli (London; Herbert and Daniel, 1913) p. 72
40 David Nicolle, The Italian Army of World War I (Oxford; Osprey, 2003) p. 3.
41 Francis McCullagh, Italy’s War for a Desert: Being Some Experiences of a War-Correspondent with the Italians in Tripoli (London; Herbert and Daniel, 1913) p. 72
CHAPTER SIX
1 H W Halleck, International Law: or, Rules Regulating the Intercourse of States in Peace and War (San Francisco; H H Bancroft, 1861) p. 442.
2 “Kepi,” ‘The Italians at Tripoli,’ in Blackwood’s Magazine No. MCLIV, December 1911. Vol. CXC. p. 832.
3 Angelo Del Boca, A un passo dalla forca: atrocita e infamie dell’occupazione italiana della Libia nelle memorie del patriota Mohamed Fekini (Milano, Baldini Castoldi Dalai, 2007) p. 16.
4 Angelo Del Boca, Gli Italiani in Libia: Tripoli bel suol d’amore: 1860-1922, Vol. I (Millan; Mondadori, 1986) p. 74; Sergio Romano, La quarta sponda: la guerra di Libia, 1911-1912 (Milano; Bompiani, 1977) p. 162; Francis McCullagh, Italy’s War for a Desert: Being Some Experiences of a War-Correspondent with the Italians in Tripoli (London; Herbert & Daniel, 1913) pp. 238-240.
5 W T Stead, ‘Francis McCullagh of Tripoli’ in W T Stead (Ed.) ‘The Reviews Reviewed’ in The Review of Reviews for Australasia, February 1912, p. 611.
6 W K McClure, Italy in North Africa: An Account of the Tripoli Enterprise (London; Constable, 1913) p. 60.
7 Tullio Irace, With the Italians in Tripoli: The Authentic History of the Turco-Italian War (London; John Murray, 1912) p. 118.
8 Francis McCullagh, Italy’s War for a Desert: Being Some Experiences of a War-Correspondent with the Italians in Tripoli (London; Herbert & Daniel, 1913) pp. 124-5, 127.
9 Francis McCullagh, Italy’s War for a Desert: Being Some Experiences of a War-Correspondent with the Italians in Tripoli (London; Herbert & Daniel, 1913) p. 132.
10 Angelo Del Boca, A un passo dalla forca: atrocita e infamie dell’occupazione italiana della Libia nelle memorie del patriota Mohamed Fekini (Milano, Baldini Castoldi Dalai, 2007) p. 24.
11 Francis McCullagh, Italy’s War for a Desert: Being Some Experiences of a War-Correspondent with the Italians in Tripoli (London; Herbert & Daniel, 1913) p. 218. The General Staff had issued a handbook for officers on how to conduct themselves in respect of the local population. Although paternalistic (‘The natives are like children: they should be treated with kindness, correctly but firmly) it had stressed the need to respect local customs, particularly those associated with religion, and that it was ‘absolutely necessary to respect the women.’ It had though also remarked that it was necessary to severely punish ‘any attempt, however small, to avoid European authority.’ Campagna di libia, Volume I: Parte generale - operazione in Tripolitania dall’inizio della campagna alla occupazione di Punta Tagiura (ottobre-dicembre 1911) (Roma, Stabilimento Poligrafico per l’Amministrazione della Guerra, 1922). p. 369.
12 “Kepi,” ‘The Italians at Tripoli,’ in Blackwood’s Magazine No. MCLIV, December 1911. Vol. CXC. p. 835.
13 Felice Picciole, Diario di un bersagliere (Milano, formichiere, 1974) p. 26.
14 “Kepi,” ‘The Italians at Tripoli,’ in Blackwood’s Magazine No. MCLIV, December 1911. Vol. CXC. p. 837.
15 Francis McCullagh, Italy’s War for a Desert: Being Some Experiences of a War-Correspondent with the Italians in Tripoli (London; Herbert & Daniel, 1913) p. 202.
16 “Kepi,” ‘The Italians at Tripoli,’ in Blackwood’s Magazine No. MCLIV, December 1911. Vol. CXC. p. 837.
17 Daily Mirror, 2 November 1911.
18 H W Halleck, International Law: or, Rules Regulating the Intercourse of States in Peace and War (San Francisco; H H Bancroft, 1861) p. 442.
19 The United Nations War Crimes Commission, Law Reports of Trials of War CriminalsVolume IV. (London: HMSO, 1948) p. 33.
20 Quinto Poggioli, ‘Aeroplanes at Tripol
i’ in Flight magazine, 11 November 1911, p. 989. Walter J Boyne, The Influence of Air Power upon History (Gretna, LA; Pelican, 2003) p. 37.
21 McCullagh, Italy’s War for a Desert: Being Some Experiences of a War-Correspondent with the Italians in Tripoli (London; Herbert & Daniel, 1913) p. 202.
22 Tullio Irace, With the Italians in Tripoli: The Authentic History of the Turco-Italian War (London; John Murray, 1912) p. 144.
23 An ‘anglais Israelite’ according to one who met him there. See: Guy d’Aveline, La guerre à Tripoli, par un témoin oculaire [The War in Tripoli, by an Eyewitness] (Paris; Charles Amat, 1912) p. 208. Guy d’Aveline was the pen name of Jeanne Gazala nee Kieffer, the wife of Dr Suleiman Gazala, or Gazala Bey, who had been a medical student in Paris, and then a doctor who studied, and wrote about, outbreaks of cholera and plague in Mesopotamia (Iraq). She later translated his memoirs from Arabic and published them in France. See: Guy d’Aveline, Mémoires d’un délégué sanitaire [Memoirs of a Sanitary Delegate] (Paris; N Maloine, 1931).
24 The New York Times, 13 January 1912.
25 Ernest N Bennett, With the Turks in Tripoli: Being Some Experiences in the Turco-Italian War of 1911 (London; Methuen, 1912) p. 95.
26 McCullagh, Italy’s War for a Desert: Being Some Experiences of a War-Correspondent with the Italians in Tripoli (London; Herbert & Daniel, 1913) p. 202.
27 Ernest N Bennett, With the Turks in Tripoli: Being Some Experiences in the Turco-Italian War of 1911 (London; Methuen, 1912) p. 95.
28 Ashmead Bartlett’s despatch is reproduced in: W K McClure, Italy in North Africa: An Account of the Tripoli Enterprise (London; Constable, 1913) pp. 253-259.
29 Quoted in: McCullagh, Italy’s War for a Desert: Being Some Experiences of a War-Correspondent with the Italians in Tripoli (London; Herbert & Daniel, 1913) p. 228.
30 Quoted in: McCullagh, Italy’s War for a Desert: Being Some Experiences of a War-Correspondent with the Italians in Tripoli (London; Herbert & Daniel, 1913) p. 292.
31 Quoted in: McCullagh, Italy’s War for a Desert: Being Some Experiences of a War-Correspondent with the Italians in Tripoli (London; Herbert & Daniel, 1913) pp. 253-59.
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