32 McCullagh, Italy’s War for a Desert: Being Some Experiences of a War-Correspondent with the Italians in Tripoli (London; Herbert & Daniel, 1913) p. 250.
33 “Kepi,” ‘The Italians at Tripoli,’ in Blackwood’s Magazine No. MCLIV, December 1911. Vol. CXC. p. 838-9.
34 Angelo Del Boca, A un passo dalla forca: atrocita e infamie dell’occupazione italiana della Libia nelle memorie del patriota Mohamed Fekini (Milano, Baldini Castoldi Dalai, 2007) p. 27. Commodore W H Beehler, The History of the Italian-Turkish War (Annapolis, MD; United States Naval Institute, 1913) p. 34.
35 See: Mohamed al-Jefa’iri et al, The Libyan Deportees in the Prisons of the Italian Islands: Documents, Statistics, Names, Illustrations (Tripoli: Libyan Studies Centre, 1989). Eliana Calandra, ‘Prigionieri arabi a Ustica: un episodio della guerra italo-turca attraverso le fonti archivistiche’ in Carla Ghezzi (Ed.), Fonti e problemi della politica coloniale italiana (Roma; Ministero per i Beni Culturali e Ambientali, 1996) Volume II, pp. 1150-1167.
36 Angelo Del Boca, A un passo dalla forca: atrocita e infamie dell’occupazione italiana della Libia nelle memorie del patriota Mohamed Fekini (Milano, Baldini Castoldi Dalai, 2007) p. 45.
37 Tullio Irace, With the Italians in Tripoli: The Authentic History of the Turco-Italian War (London; John Murray, 1912) pp. 163-4.
38 Quoted in: W T Stead, Tripoli and the Treaties or Britain’s Duty in this War (London; Stead’s Publishing, 1911) pp. 62-4.
39 W T Stead, ‘Francis McCullagh of Tripoli’ in W T Stead (Ed.)‘The Reviews Reviewed’ in The Review of Reviews for Australasia, February 1912, p. 563.
40 F T Marinetti, La battaglia di Tripoli 26 ottobre 1911: vissuta e cantata da F.T. Marinetti (Milano; Edizioni Futuriste di Poesia, 1912).
41 Angelo Del Boca, Gli Italiani in Libia: Tripoli bel suol d’amore: 1860-1922, Vol. I (Milano; Mondadori, 1986) p. 118.
42 Quoted in McCullagh, Italy’s War for a Desert: Being Some Experiences of a War-Correspondent with the Italians in Tripoli (London; Herbert & Daniel, 1913) p. 304.
43 Grey River Argus, 6 March 1912
44 Quoted in McCullagh, Italy’s War for a Desert: Being Some Experiences of a War-Correspondent with the Italians in Tripoli (London; Herbert & Daniel, 1913) p. 394.
CHAPTER SEVEN
1 Domenico Tumiati, ‘Le fauci del Sahara’ in Tripolitania (Milano; Fratelli Treves, 1911) p. 90.
2 Johannes Lepsius, Albrecht Mendelssohn-Bartholdy, Friedrich Thimme (eds), Die Große Politik der Europäischen Kabinette 1871 bis 1914I, Vol. XXX part 1 (Berlin; Deutsche Verlaggesellschaft fur Politik und Geschichte, 1926).
3 Geoffrey A Haywood, Failure of a Dream: Sidney Sonnino and the rise and fall of Liberal Italy 1847-1922 () p. 396.
4 Giovanno Giolotti, Memorie della mia vita, con uno studio di Olindo Malagodi (Milano; Fratelli Treves, 1922) Volume II. pp. 380-82.
5 Foreign Office Historical Section, Italian Libya (London; HMSO, 1920) p. 58.
6 W T Stead, Tripoli and the Treaties: or Britain’s Duty in This War (London; Stead’s, 1911) p. 17.
7 Lassa Oppenheim and Ronald F Roxburgh (Ed.), International Law: A Treatise, Vol. I. Peace (London; Longmans, Green, 1920) p. 397.
8 Charles E P Brome Weigall, A History of Events in Egypt from 1798 to 1914 (London; William Blackwood, 1915).
9 Taner Akçam. Insan Haklari ve Ermeni Sorunu: Ittihat ve Terakki’den Kurtulus Savasina (Ankara; IMGE Kitabevi, 1999) pp. 92-3. See also: Philip Hendrick Stoddard (Trans. Tansel Demirel), Te kilat-ı Mahsusa: Osmanlı Hükümeti ve Araplar 1911-1918 Te kilat-ı Mahsusa üzerine bir ön çalı ma (Istanbul; Arba Yayinlari, 1994). A translation of Hendrick’s PhD thesis, The Ottoman Government and the Arabs, 1911 to 1918: A Preliminary Study of the Teskiat-i Mahsusa (Ann Arbor, MI; University Microfilms, 1963)]
10 Ottoman titles have no direct European equivalents, but men could be granted the right to be known as Effendi, Bey, and Pasa (Pasha), in ascending order.
11 Robert Graves, Lawrence and the Arabs (London; Jonathan Cape, 1934) p. 14.
12 Salvatore Bono, Enver Pascià: diario della guerra libica (Bologna; Cappelli, 1986) p. 74. n. 10.
13 Enver Pasa, Um Tripolis (Munchen, Hugo Bruckmann, 1918) pp. 15-16.
14 A zavia or zawia ‘is, at the same time, a religious seminary and a pious and gratuitous hotel.’ The abode of a marabout, a religious leader and teacher, man devoted to the religious observance of the Koran, and to the edification of the faithful. See: Amos Perry, Carthage and Tunis, Past and Present: In Two Parts (Providence, RI; Providence Press, 1869) pp. 262, 275.
15 Enver Pasa, Um Tripolis (Munchen, Hugo Bruckmann, 1918) p. 23.
16 Andrew Mango, Ataturk: The Biography of the Founder of Modern Turkey (Woodstock, NY; Overlook Press, 2002) p. 105.
17 Andrew Mango, Atatürk: The Biography of the Founder of Modern Turkey (London; John Murray, 2004) p. 105.
18 Sukru Hanioglu (Ed.), Kendi Mektuplarinda Enver Pasa (Istanbul; Der Yayınları, 1989) p. 88.
19 Sukru Hanioglu (Ed.), Kendi Mektuplarinda Enver Pasa (Istanbul; Der Yayınları, 1989) pp. 75-6.
20 Philip Hendrick Stoddard (Trans. Tansel Demirel), Te kilat-ı Mahsusa: Osmanlı Hükümeti ve Araplar 1911-1918 Te kilat-ı Mahsusa üzerine bir ön çalı ma (Istanbul; Arba Yayinlari, 1994) [The Special Organisation: The Ottoman Government and the Arabs, 1911 to 1918 a Preliminary Study of the Special Organisation. A translation of Hendrick’s PhD thesis, The Ottoman Government and the Arabs, 1911 to 1918: A Preliminary Study of the Teskiat-i Mahsusa (Ann Arbor, MI; University Microfilms, 1963)] p. 84.
21 E E Evans-Pritchard, The Sanusi of Cyrenaica (Oxford; Clarendon Press, 1949). Muhammad Khalil, ‘Renaissance in North Africa: The Sanusiyyah Movement’ in M M Sharif (Ed.) A History of Muslim Philosophy with Short Accounts of Other Disciplines and the Modern Renaissance in Muslim Lands, Volume II (Wiesbaden; Otto Harrassowitz, 1966). Knut S Vikør, Sufi and Scholar on the Desert Edge: Muhammad b. Ali Al-Sanusi and His Brotherhood (Evanston, Ill; Northwestern University Press, 1995). N.A. Ziadeh, Sanusiya: A Study of a Revivalist Movement in Islam (Leiden; Brill, 1958). Mahmood Ahmad Ghazi, The Sanusiyyah Movement Of North Africa: An Analytical Study (Islamabad; Shariah Academy, 2001).
22 Knut S Vikør, Sufi and Scholar on the Desert Edge: Muhammad b. Ali Al-Sanusi and His Brotherhood (Evanston, Ill; Northwestern University Press, 1995) p. 1.
23 Hanns Vischer, Across the Sahara from Tripoli to Bornu (London; Edward Arnold, 1910) p. 69.
24 Hanns Vischer, Across the Sahara from Tripoli to Bornu (London; Edward Arnold, 1910) p. 68.
25 Rosita Forbes, The Secret of the Sahara: Kufara (New York; George H Doran, 1921) p. 331.
26 Ali Abdullatif Ahmida, The Making of Modern Libya: State Formation, Colonization, and Resistance (Albany, NY; State University of New York Press, 2009) p. 1.
27 Amal Obeidi, Political Culture in Libya (Richmond UK; Curzon, 2001). Abdulmola El-Horeir, Social and Economic Transformations in the Libyan Hinterland during the Second Half of the 19th Century: The Role of Sayyid Ahmad al-Sharif al-Sanusi (Los Angeles, CA; University of California, 1981). Mohamed Zahi El-Mogherbi, Tribalism, Religion and the Challenge of Political Participation: The Case of Libya. (A Paper presented to Conference on Democratic Challenges in the Arab World, Centre for Political and International Development Studies, Cairo, 22–27 September 1992). Ernest Gellner and Charles Micaud, Arabs and Berbers: from Tribe to Nation in North Africa (London; D C Heath, 1973).
28 Gerhard Rohlfs, Kufra: Reise von Tripolis nach der Oase Kufra (Leipzig; F A Brockhaus, 1881).
29 Lisa Anderson, ‘The Development of Nationalist Sentiment in Libya, 1908-1922’ in Rashid Khalidi, Lisa Anderson, Muhammad Muslih and Reeva S Simon (Eds.) The Origins of Arab Nationalism (New York; Columbia University Press, 1991) p. 229.
30 Abdul-mola al-Horeir, Social and Economic Transformations in the Libyan Hinterland during the Second Half of the Nineteenth Century: The Role of Sayyid Ahmad al-Sharif al-Sanusi (Los Angeles; University o
f California, 1981) pp. 224-5.
31 Muhammad Khalil, ‘Renaissance in North Africa: The Sanusiyyah Movement’ in M M Sharif (Ed.) A History of Muslim Philosophy with Short Accounts of Other Disciplines and the Modern Renaissance in Muslim Lands, Volume II (Wiesbaden; Otto Harrassowitz, 1966)
32 Mesut Uyar and Edward J Erickson, A Military History of the Ottomans: From Osman to Ataturk (Westport, CT; Praeger, 2009) p. 223.
33 Archivio dell’Ufficio Storico dello Stato Maggiore dell’Esercito, Studi per un’eventuale occupazione dell’isola di Rodi o altre isole turche, L8, R1, C18.
34 Tullio Irace, With the Italians in Tripoli: The Authentic History of the Turco-Italian War (London; John Murray, 1912) p. 200.
35 Ernest Nathaniel Bennett for the Manchester Guardian and George Frederick Abbott left London together on 23 November for Tunis. Bennett was an experienced hand and the author of several books detailing his experiences, including The Downfall of the Dervishes: Being a Sketch of the Final Sudan Campaign of 1898 (1898) and With Methuen’s Column on an Ambulance Train (1900). Abbott was also well travelled and had written widely. His books included Songs of Modern Greece (1900), Macedonian Folk-Lore (1903), The Tale of a Tour in Macedonia (1903), Through India with the Prince (1906), Greece in Evolution (1909), Turkey in Transition (1909), The Philosophy of a Don (1911), and The Ambassador of Loss (1911).
36 W K McClure, Italy in North Africa: An Account of the Tripoli Enterprise (London; Constable, 1913) pp. 96-7.
37 F Abbott, The Holy War in Tripoli (London; Edward Arnold, 1912) p. 50.
38 W K McClure, Italy in North Africa: An Account of the Tripoli Enterprise (London; Constable, 1913) pp. 102-3.
39 Le Matin. 30 November 1911.
40 Quoted in: Duncan Anderson, Glass Warriors: The Camera at War (London; Collins, 2005) p. 78.
41 W K McClure, Italy in North Africa: An Account of the Tripoli Enterprise (London; Constable, 1913) p. 103.
42 Richard Bagot, The Italians of To-Day (London; Mills & Boon, 1912) p. 98.
43 Nicola Labanca, ‘The Embarrassment of Libya: History, Memory, and Politics in Contemporary Italy’ in California Italian Studies Journal, Volume 1, Issue 1, 2010.
44 Salvatore Bono, ‘Lettere dal fronte libico (1911-1912)’ in Nuova Antologia No. 2052. December 1971.
45 Lucia Re, ‘Italians and the Invention of Race: The Poetics and Politics of Difference in the Struggle over Libya, 1890-1913’ in California Italian Studies Journal 1.1. (2010). p. 28.
46 Carolina Invernizio, Odio di araba [The Hatred of Arabs] (Firenze; Salani, 1912) p. 5.
47 Tullio Irace, With the Italians in Tripoli: The Authentic History of the Turco-Italian War (London; John Murray, 1912) p. 313.
CHAPTER EIGHT
1 Charles Wellington Furlong, ‘Italy finds Tripoli a Hard Nut to Crack’ in The New York Times, 4 May 1912.
2 Quinto Poggioli, ‘Aeroplanes at Tripoli’ in Flight magazine, 11 November 1911, p. 989.
3 Leslie Gardiner, Lunardi: The Story of Vicenzo Lunardi (Shrewsberry; Airlife, 1963).
4 Lieutenant General [Gugliemo] Pepe, Narrative of Scenes and Events in Italy from 1847 to 1849, Including the Siege of Venice, Volume II (London; Henry Colburn, 1850) p. 116.
5 Angelo Lodi, Storia delle origini dell’aeronautica militare, 1884-1915: aerostieri, dirigibilisti, aviatori dell’Esercito e della Marina in Italia nel periodo pionieristico (Roma; Bizzarri, 1976) Volume 1. Gaetano V Cavallaro, The Beginning of Futility: Diplomatic, Political, Military and Naval Events on the Austro-Italian Front in the First World War 1914-1917 (Bloomington, IN; Xlibris, 1999) Volume I, p. 107.
6 Andrea Curami, ‘La nascita dell’industria aeronautica’ in Paolo Ferrari (Ed.), L’aeronautica italiana: una storia del Novecento (Milano; Franco Angeli, 2004) pp. 22-23
7 Sebastiano Licheri, ‘Gli ordinamenti dell ‘aeronautica militare italiana dal 1884 al 1918’ in Ministero per i beni culturali e ambientali Ufficio centrale per i beni archivistici, Le fonti per la storia militare italiana in età contemporanea. Atti del III seminario, Roma, 16-17 dicembre 1988 (Roma; Ediprint, 1993) p. 479.
8 RUSI Journal, 1911.
9 Edgar C Middleton, Airfare of To-Day and of the Future (London; Constable, 1917) p. 30.
10 C Canovetti ‘L’ Aviazione in Libia’ in Emporium: rivista mensile illustrata d’arte, letteratura, scienze e varietà, Vol. XXXV (Bergamo; Istituto Italiano d’Arti Grafiche, 1912) pp. 456-7.
11 Quoted in: Bertha von Suttner. ‘Randglossen zur Zeitgeschichte’ in Alfred M Fried (Ed.), Die Friedens-Warte: Zeitschrift für zwischenstaatliche Organisation (Berlin; Zeitschrift für zwischenstaatliche Organisation, 1912) pp. 99-100.
12 http://www.aeci.it/
13 Anthony Aufrere (Trans.), Narrative of an Expedition from Tripoli in Barbary to the Western Frontier of Egypt, in 1817, by the Bey of Tripoli; in letters to Dr Viviani of Genoa, by Paolo Della Cella, Physician Attendant on the Bey; with an Appendix containing Instructions for Navigating the Great Syrtis (London; John and Arthur Arch, 1822) pp. 15-18.
14 H C Seppings Wright, Two Years Under the Crescent (Boston; Small, Maynard and Co., 1913) p. 59.
15 G F Abbott, The Holy War in Tripoli (London;, 1912) p. 46.
16 Alan Ostler, The Arabs in Tripoli (London; John Murray, 1912) p. 48.
17 A Fenduk, or Caravanserai, was a type of inn or lodging house consisting of a more or less square enclosure surrounded by a wall and pierced by an arched gateway. Built on the inside of the wall were a number of bare windowless rooms with doors that opened into the square, which contained a well or water source. Animals, such as camels or horses, would remain tethered in the square whilst their owners could store their possessions, and sleep, in the rooms. The gate was locked during the night affording some security, and whilst no charge was made to stay, those who could afford to were expected, on leaving, to leave a small gratuity to the porter.
18 G F Abbott, The Holy War in Tripoli (London; Edward Arnold, 1912) p. 1.
19 Alan Ostler, The Arabs in Tripoli (London; John Murray, 1912) p. 55.
20 G F Abbott, The Holy War in Tripoli (London; Edward Arnold, 1912) p. 45.
21 Charles Wellington Furlong, ‘Italy finds Tripoli a Hard Nut to Crack’ in The New York Times, 4 May 1912.
22 Tullio Irace, With the Italians in Tripoli: The Authentic History of the Turco-Italian War (London; John Murray, 1912) pp. 248-9.
23 Herbert Gerald Montagu, despatch to The Central News dated 14 January 1912. Alan Ostler, The Arabs in Tripoli (London; John Murray, 1912) pp. 68-9.
24 G F Abbott, The Holy War in Tripoli (London; Edward Arnold, 1912) p. 51.
25 Interview with Marconi, New York Times 24 March 1912.
26 Tullio Irace, With the Italians in Tripoli: The Authentic History of the Turco-Italian War (London; John Murray, 1912) p. 249.
27 Diario storico del Comando I Gruppo Artiglieria da Fortezza di Tripoli (28 settembre 1911-16 ottobre 1912). Gianni Oliva, Storia degli alpini (Milano; Rizzoli, 1985).
28 G F Abbott, The Holy War in Tripoli (London; Edward Arnold, 1912) p. 54.
29 G F Abbott, The Holy War in Tripoli (London; Edward Arnold, 1912) p. 55.
30 Alan Ostler, The Arabs in Tripoli (London; John Murray, 1912) p. 76.
31 G F Abbott, The Holy War in Tripoli (London; Edward Arnold, 1912) p. 56.
32 G F Abbott, The Holy War in Tripoli (London; Edward Arnold, 1912) p. 50.
33 G F Abbott, The Holy War in Tripoli (London; Edward Arnold, 1912) p. 56.
34 G F Abbott, The Holy War in Tripoli (London; Edward Arnold, 1912) p. 57.
35 Alan Ostler, The Arabs in Tripoli (London; John Murray, 1912) p. 82.
36 Reuters despatch from Tripoli City. 6 December 1911.
37 David Nicolle and Raffaele Ruggeri, The Italian Army of World War I (Oxford; Osprey, 2003) p. 34.
38 W K McClure, Italy in North Africa: An Account of the Tripoli Enterprise (London; Constable, 1913) p. 122.
CHAPTER NINE
/> 1 Alan Ostler, The Arabs in Tripoli (London; John Murray, 1912) p. 58.
2 Ernest N Bennett, With the Turks in Tripoli: Being Some Experiences in the Turco-Italian War of 1911 (London; Methuen, 1912) p. 108.
3 The inventor was French farmer Paul Decauville, who conceived the idea after visiting the narrow gauge Rheilffordd Ffestiniog (Ffestiniog Railway) between Blaenau Ffestiniog and Porthmadog in North Wales. He originally devised it as a means of improving access to his land, but realised that it could be adapted for other purposes. He formed a company to produce track and rolling stock in 1875. The French Army adopted the system in 1888 and it had become standardised equipment for the militaries of several countries by 1914. See: ‘Portable Railways’ in Scientific American Supplement No. 446 New York, 19 July 1884; Pascal Ory, 1889 La Mémoire des siècles: L’Expo universelle (Paris; Editions Complexe, 1989) p. 119; Ffestiniog Railway Company, Rheilffordd Ffestiniog Guide Book (Porthmadog; Ffestiniog Railway Company, 1997); Jim Harter,World Railways of the Nineteenth Century: A Pictorial History in Victorian Engravings (Baltimore MD; John Hopkins University Press, 2005) p. 141.
4 Archivio dell’Ufficio Storico dello Stato Maggiore dell’Esercito: Carteggio Libia 180/5: Caneva to Pollio, 19 Dec. I911; AUSSME 180/5: Intendenza, Corpo di Spedizione in Libia, reports of 19 & 27 Dec. 1911.
5 Claud H Williams, Report on the Military Geography of the North-Western Desert of Egypt (London; HM Government, 1919) p. 60. See also: Jim Harold, ‘Cars, Deserts, Maps and Naming: An Analysis of Captain Claud H Williams’ Report on the Military Geography of the North-Western Desert of Egypt, (1917).’ A paper presented to the Fifth Biennial ASTENE (Association for the Study of Travel in Egypt and the Near East) Conference, held on Friday 11 July - Monday 14 July 2003 at Worcester College, Oxford.
6 Cape Times, 29 May 1906.
7 Charles à Court Repington, ‘Italy’s Difficulties’ in The Times, 30 December 1911.
8 Winston S Churchill, The River War: The Reconquest of the Sudan (London; New English Library, 1985) p. 262.
A Box of Sand Page 49
