by Benny Morris
446.
Hartunian,
Neither to Laugh nor to Weep, 13–14. The literal meaning of “Muhammede salavat”
is “prayer be upon Muhammad.”
447. Terrell to Olney, 16 December 1895, and attached “Attacks on Chris tian ity in Turkey,” 14 December 1895, FRUS 1895, Part 2, 1398–1400; and summary of report on Missis, mid- November 1895,
“Projets de réformes,” 209, Bodl. MS Lord Bryce Papers 211–212.
448. Barnham to Currie, 11 August 1895, UKNA FO 195 / 1883.
449. In June 1896 the French estimated the total number of forced conversions during the previous months at 40,950: 5,200 in Erzurum; 1,600 in Sivas; 12,500 in Harput; 7,500 in Diyarbekir; 6,500 in Bitlis; 3,000 in Van; 1,500 in Aleppo; 3,000 in Adana; 150 in Ankara ( table attached to Barthélemy to Cambon, 6 June 1896, MAE, Turquie 528, 319). See also Deringil, “Armenian Question Is Fi nally Closed,”
347–349. Üngör, Making of Modern Turkey, 19, estimates that 25,000 Christians were converted in Diyarbekir vilayet alone during the Hamidian massacres.
450. Currie to Salisbury, 6 March 1896, Turkey No. 8 (1896), 67.
451. Cumberbatch to Currie, 26 February 1896, Turkey No. 8 (1896), 78. For a list of conversions in the Van area, see reports sent by the Catholicos of Akdamar to the French embassy, 12 May and 7 August 1895, UKNA FO 195 / 1906.
452. Currie to FO, 13 December 1895, UKNA FO 195 / 1871.
Notes to Pages 119–124
453. Unsigned, “Letter dated Aintab, February 6, 1896,” Turkey 8 (1896), 84.
454. Graves to Currie, 17 January 1895, UKNA FO 195 / 1891; and Graves to Currie, 28 February 1895, UKNA FO 195 / 1891.
455. Cumberbatch to Currie, 2 December 1895, UKNA FO 195 / 1893.
456. Bulman to Currie, 4 February 1896, UKNA FO 195 / 1930.
457. Dwight to Currie, 27 November 1895, UKNA FO 195 / 1907.
458. Cumberbatch to Currie, 6 January 1896, and attached memorandum by Cumberbatch, “Forced Conversions to Islamism in Kharput District. Additional Details,” 6 January 1896, UKNA FO 195 / 1941.
459. Cumberbatch to Currie, 2 December 1895, UKNA FO 195 / 1893.
460. Cumberbatch to Currie, 12 December 1895, UKNA FO 195 / 1893.
461. Fontana to Currie, 15 June 1896, UKNA FO 195 / 1944.
462. Currie to Salisbury, draft tele gram, c. 9 January 1896, UKNA FO 195 / 1914.
463. Deringil, “Armenian Question Is Fi nally Closed,” 369–371.
464. A. J. Arnold, general secretary, Evangelical Alliance, “Extracts from Letters of Correspondents in Turkey,” March 1896, UKNA FO 195 / 1928.
465. Currie to Salisbury, 29 January 1896, Turkey No. 5 (1896), 1.
466. Currie to Salisbury, 3 February 1896, Turkey No. 5 (1896), 1.
467. Fitzmaurice (Aleppo) to Currie, 9 April 1896, Turkey No. 5 (1896), 16–17.
468. Currie to Salisbury, 31 March 1896, Turkey No. 8 (1896), 113.
469. Vice consul J. H. Monahan to ?, 28 February 1897, and Monahan, “Memorandum: Forced Conversions in Bitlis Villages,” May 1897, both in UKNA FO 195 / 1993.
470. Hampson to Cumberbatch, 2 March 1896, Turkey No. 8 (1896), 106.
471. Hallward to Currie, 21 April 1896, UKNA FO 195 / 1930.
472. Fontana to Currie, 2 May 1896, Turkey No. 8 (1896), 179.
473. Unsigned but by the ABC HQ, Constantinople, “The Orphans of Asiatic Turkey,” 6 August 1896, UKNA FO 195 / 1953. The report states that very young girls were abducted and enslaved, serving initially as apprentice servants in house holds. After maturing they were handed over to the harem of some “wealthy debauchee” or sold off as wives “for the gold her flesh would bring in the [marriage]
market.”
474. Unsigned, “In Asiatic Turkey and the Transcaucasus in 1889–1890,” undated, USNA RG 59, 867.4016, Roll 46.
475. See, for example, the “Armenian population of Karahissar” to Longworth, 2 July 1894, UKNA 195 / 1894, relating to the May 1894 rapes of two Armenian women washing laundry by a group of “government officials” led by “the son of Agadjouk,” presumably a Kurdish leader near Karahissar. A few days later, soldiers “outraged” two Armenian women near the village of Anerzi.
476. Hallward to Graves, 19 March 1895, Turkey No. 6 (1896), 267–268. See also Armenian Patriarch to Cambon, 8 January 1896, MAE, Turquie 526, 54.
477. Hallward to Graves, 10 June 1895, Turkey No. 6 (1896), 349.
478. Christie to Major Massy, 15 July 1896, UKNA FO 195 / 1930.
479. Gates to Currie, 16 January 1896, UKNA FO 195 / 1949.
480. Fontana to Currie, 11 April 1897, UKNA FO 195 / 1981.
481. Unsigned, “Something about Silvan [Silouan] District,” Mardin, August 1896, Houghton ABC
16.10.1, Vol. 12.
482. “Report on the state of affairs in the Vilayet of Mamuret– ul- Aziz,” c. April 1896, Turkey No. 8
(1896), 180. See also “Inclosure No. 2 in No. 213, Vilayet of Diyarbekir,” c. April 1896, Turkey No. 8 (1896), 180, for a case in Nor- Kegh, Palu district.
483. Bulman to Currie, 4 February 1896, Turkey No. 8 (1896), 38.
Notes to Pages 124–130
484. “Communication Received from the Sublime Porte,” 1 August 1896, Turkey No. 8 (1896), 293.
485. Hallward to Herbert, 25 August 1896, UKNA FO 195 / 1930; and Hallward to Currie, 3 April 1896, UKNA FO 195 / 1930.
486. Herbert to Salisbury, 4 August 1896, Turkey No. 8 (1896), 291.
487. “Translation of Circular,” undated, but attached to Fontana to Currie, 11 October 1897, UKNA FO 195 / 1981.
488. Fontana to Currie, 21 December 1897, UKNA FO 195 / 1981.
489. For example, see Hallward to Currie, 20 March 1896, UKNA FO 195 / 1930.
490. Waugh to Currie, 6 September 1897, UKNA FO 195 / 1993.
491. Cumberbatch to Nicolson, 8 January 1894, Turkey No. 6 (1896), 15–16.
492. “Armenians of Shebin- Karahissar to Consul Longworth,” 2 July 1894, and “Letter to Consul Longworth,” 21 July 1894, both in Turkey No. 6 (1896), 122–123, 123–124.
493. Currie to Salisbury, 4 July 1895, and appended “List of the Armenians exiled to Acre (fortress),”
Turkey No. 6 (1896), 351–354. Acre was a favorite destination for banishment. For instance, in 1868 the Ottomans exiled there the founder of the Baha’i faith, Baha’ullah.
494. Graves to Currie, 9 March 1894, Turkey No. 6 (1896), 55.
495. “Memorandum respecting the state of things at Yuzgat, May 1894,” Turkey No. 6 (1896), 90.
496. A. Tulle, “News Notes No. 2,” 19 March 1896, UKNA FO 195 / 1950.
497. Catoni (Alexandretta) to Currie, 14 January 1897, UKNA FO 195 / 1975.
498. Bulman to ?, 19 August 1896, UKNA FO 195 / 1930.
499. Richards to Currie, 20 May 1896, UKNA FO 195 / 1934.
500. Consul to Currie, 7 February 1896, UKNA FO 195 / 1936.
501. Graves to Currie, 12 September 1896, UKNA FO 195 / 1941.
502. Roqueferrier to Cambon, 10 February 1896, MAE, Turquie 527, 34–42.
503. Fitzmaurice to Currie, 10 September 1896, UKNA FO 195 / 1930.
504. See, for example, Graves (Erzurum) to Currie, 12 September 1896, UKNA FO 195 / 1941.
505. Bulman to ?, 19 August 1896, UKNA FO 195 / 1930. See also MAE, Turquie 527, 40.
506. Cumberbatch to Currie, 22 February 1896, UKNA FO 195 / 1941.
507. Henry Barnham (Aleppo) to Currie, 16 January 1897, UKNA FO 195 / 1976.
508. Memorandum, Drogmanat via Chancery, 9 October 1896, UKNA FO 195 / 1941.
509. Memorandum, Drogmanat via Chancery, 9 October 1896, and Graves to Currie, 16 October 1896, both in UKNA FO 195 / 1941.
510. Graves to Currie, 16 October 1896, UKNA FO 195 / 1941.
511. Longworth to Currie, 18 November 1896, UKNA FO 195 / 1936.
512. Fuller to Terrell, 26 November 1896, UKNA FO 195 / 1953; and Fuller to Smith, 28 October 1896, Houghton ABC 16.9.5. The vali of A
leppo told missionaries that he had received “stringent orders from Constantinople” to prevent the group’s emigration (Longworth to Currie, 19 November 1896, UKNA FO 195 / 1953).
513. Unsigned but by ABC HQ, Constantinople, “The Orphans of Asiatic Turkey,” 6 August 1896, UKNA FO 195 / 1953.
514.
Chambers
(Bahçecik, Izmit) to Currie, 28 January 1896, UKNA FO 195 / 1949; and Cumber-
batch to Currie, 22 February 1896, UKNA FO 195 / 1941.
515. For example, Americus Fuller to ?, undated (prob ably from July 1896), Houghton ABC 16.9.5; and Cumberbatch to Currie, 22 February 1896, UKNA FO 195 / 1941.
516. Correspondence between British Colonial Secretary Joseph Chamberlain and British High Commissioner Walter Sendall, starting with Chamberlain to Sendall, 18 March 1896, in UKNA FO
195 / 1952. Sendall argued that there was a lack of arable land and the local population might not be
Notes to Pages 130–138
hospitable: “The Armenian is not liked either by the Christian or the Moslem Cypriot.” He pointed out that the establishment in 1883 of a settlement of Jewish immigrants from Rus sia had failed.
517. See Earl of Aberdeen to Joseph Chamberlain, 21 August 1896, and John McGee, Clerk of the Privy Council, “Inclosure No. 2 in No. 1, Extract from a Report of the Committee of the Honourable the Privy Council, approved by the Governor- General on the 14th August 1896,” both in UKNA FO 195 / 1928.
518.
Akçam, Shameful Act, 30. Ihrig, Justifying Genocide, 34, puts the death toll at between 80,000
and “over 200,000.” McCarthy, Death and Exile, 119–120, writes that during the 1890s, Armenian rebellions were “common all over the east” of Turkey, which is nonsense. He also writes, “In general, the Armenian population seems to have suffered the worse mortality,” which, implying some sort of equivalence between the activities of Armenian rebels and Turkish authorities, is worse than nonsense.
519. Cumberbatch to Currie, 7 January 1896, and “Inclosure 2 in No. 7,” both in Turkey No. 8 (1896), 7–10. See also Ihrig, Justifying Genocide, 42.
520. “Inclosure 2 in No. 8, List of Houses burnt and of Persons killed in the District of the American Mission at Kharput,” Turkey No. 8 (1896), 11.
521. Longworth (Trabzon) to Currie, 8 February 1896, and attached “Depredations committed on Armenians in Karahissar- Sharki District of the Sivas Vilayet,” Turkey No. 8 (1896), 59–60.
522. Longworth to Currie, 7 February 1896, and “Inclosure 2 in No. 49,” both in Turkey No. 8 (1896), 41–42.
523. Unsigned, “Statistics of Disorders in the Sivas Vilayet, 1895–1896,” undated, UKNA FO
195 / 1930.
524. Terrell to Currie, undated but from February 1896, UKNA FO 195 / 1949.
525. Quoted in Ihrig, Justifying Genocide, 49.
526. Waugh to Currie, 6 September 1897, UKNA FO 195 / 1993.
527. Crow to Currie, 3 October 1897, UKNA FO 195 / 1993.
528. Longworth to Currie, 23 October 1897, UKNA FO 195 / 1993.
529. Fontana to Currie, 23 January 1897, UKNA FO 195 / 1981.
530. Unsigned, “Precis of Proceedings of the Tokat Commission, which sat from April 21st to May 27th, 1897,” UKNA FO 195 / 1993.
531. Bulman to Currie, 8 April 1897, UKNA FO 195 / 1993.
532. Bulman to Currie, 26 April 1897, UKNA FO 195 / 1993. Western newspapers reported a death toll of 700–900.
533. Unsigned, “Precis of Proceedings of the Tokat Commission . . . ,” UKNA FO 195 / 1993.
534. Unsigned, “Precis of Proceedings of the Tokat Commission . . . , which sat from April 21st to May 27th, 1897,” UKNA FO 195 / 1993.
535. Bulman to Currie, 14 April 1897, UKNA FO 195 / 1993.
536. Bulman to Currie, 14 April 1897, UKNA FO 195 / 1993.
537. In August 1896 the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions estimated that the
“massacres of 1895” had orphaned “at least 50,000 Christian children under twelve years of age” (unsigned but by the mission HQ in Constantinople, “The Orphans of Asiatic Turkey,” 6 August 1896, UKNA FO 195 / 1953).
3. A More Turkish Empire
1.
Ahmad,
Making of Modern Turkey, 39.
2.
Suny,
They Can Live in the Desert, 206–207.
3.
Rogan,
Fall of the Ottomans, 24.
4. Quoted in Pentzopoulos, Balkan Exchange, 53.
Notes to Pages 138–151
5.
Zürcher, Young Turk Legacy and Nation Building, 120.
6.
Suny,
They Can Live in the Desert, 190.
7.
Suny,
They Can Live in the Desert, 183–185.
8.
McCarthy,
Death and Exile, 109–134.
9. Ginio, “Paving the Way for Ethnic Cleansing.”
10.
Suny,
They Can Live in the Desert, 175.
11. Wangenheim to Theobald von Bethmann- Hollweg, 15 November 1913, Enc. 2, German Foreign Office, 144. While Protestant and Catholic Armenian parishes thrived after the 1890s, a much smaller group joined the Greek Orthodox Church.
12.
Suny,
They Can Live in the Desert, 176; and Kevorkian, Armenian Genocide, 146–152.
13. The events described here and in the following paragraphs are based on Der Matossian, “From Bloodless Revolution,” 152–173; and Tetsuya Sahara, “The 1909 Adana Incident (Part 2).”
14.
Akçam, Shameful Act, 69.
15. Der Matossian, “From Bloodless Revolution,” 163.
16.
Gaunt,
Massacres, 45.
17. Der Matossian, “From Bloodless Revolution,” 164; Akçam, Shameful Act, 69–70.
18.
Suny,
They Can Live in the Desert, 182.
19.
Suny,
They Can Live in the Desert, 194.
20.
Suny,
They Can Live in the Desert, 202; and Kevorkian, Armenian Genocide, 153–165.
21.
Ihirig,
Justifying Genocide, 89.
22.
Suny,
They Can Live in the Desert, 203, 216–217.
23. Report of Rev. Ralph Harlow, attached to Horton to Morgenthau, 23 January 1915, Foreign Service, vol. 390, 374, emphasis in the original. See also Suny, They Can Live in the Desert, 185, 239.
24.
Zürcher, “How Eu ro pe ans Adopted Anatolia,” 383; and Zürcher, “Renewal and Silence.”
25.
Suny,
They Can Live in the Desert, 187. For the vengeful effect of the Balkan wars on the Young Turks, see also Üngör, Making of Modern Turkey, 42–50.
26.
Kieser,
Talaat, 56–57.
27.
Kieser,
Talaat, 56–57, 188.
28. Testimony of Wilfred M. Post, 11 April 1918, USNA RG 256, “Inquiry Documents,” 1917–1919, no. 823, Roll 39. The (Sunni) Şeyhülislam’s fatwa was quickly followed by jihadi fatwas by the leading Shi’ite clerics in Najaf and Karbala (Gaunt, Massacres, 62).
29.
Kevorkian,
Armenian Genocide, 141.
30. Mallet to Grey, 13 April 1920, and Dussi to consul- general, 14 April 1914, both in UKNA FO
371 / 2132. Q. in Mazower, Salonica, 316–318. Mazower points out that the deportation of the Macedonian-Thracian Turks was not initiated or supported by the Greek government. On the muhacir s’ influence on Ottoman plans of ethnic cleansing, see Ginio, “Paving the Way for Ethnic Cleansing,” 283–297.
31. Rodd to Grey, 19 August 1909, UKNA FO 371 / 778.
32. British consul, Adrianople, to Mallet, 31 March 1914, UKNA FO 371 / 2133.
33. Bjornlund, “Danish Sources on the Destructi
on of Ottoman Greeks,” 150.
34.
Kevorkian,
Armenian Genocide, 170; and Akçam, From Empire to Republic, 143–146; Morris to Morgenthau, 18 July 1914, USNA RG 59 867.00, Roll 5; and Bjornlund, “Danish Sources on the Destruction of Ottoman Greeks,” 147–149. The Turks denied that such a “plan” existed (see Kevorkian, Armenian Genocide, 243).
35. Kieser, “Dr. Mehmet Reshid,” 196.
36.
Kieser,
Talaat Pasha, 174–175.
37. Bjornlund, “Danish Sources on the Destruction of Ottoman Greeks,” 152.
38. Bjornlund, “Danish Sources on the Destruction of Ottoman Greeks,” 143.
Notes to Pages 151–154
39. Bjornlund, “Danish Sources on the Destruction of Ottoman Greeks,” 143.
40. Hofmann, “Cumulative Genocide,” 51; and Kieser, Talaat Pasha, 176. The Greeks at the time published this cable, which Ottoman sources dismissed as a fabrication (Kieser, Talaat Pasha, 454n162).
