by Benny Morris
41. Hofmann, “Cumulative Genocide,” 51.
42.
Kieser,
Talaat Pasha, 177, 179–180.
43. Horton to SecState, c. 1 September 1918, USNA RG 59, 867.4016, Roll 46.
44. Memoranda attached to Mallet to Grey, 18 March 1914, UKNA FO 371 / 2126.
45. Greek Patriarchate, “Persecution of the Greeks in Turkey, 1914–1918,” undated but prob ably from 1919, Bodl. MS Toynbee Papers 57 (hereafter Greek Patriarchate, “Persecution of the Greeks . . . ,”), 112.
46. Quoted in Ginio, Ottoman Culture of Defeat, 190.
47. Mallet to Grey, 27 January 1914, UKNA FO 371 / 2126.
48. Henry D. Barnham to Mallet, 13 February 1914, UKNA FO 371 / 2126.
49. G. Henry Wright, Birmingham Chamber of Commerce, to Assistant Secretary, Commercial Department, Board of Trade, Whitehall, 22 May 1914, UKNA FO 371 / 2126.
50. Greek Patriarchate, “Persecution of the Greeks . . . ,” 55.
51. Henry D. Barnham to Mallet, 13 February 1914, UKNA FO 371 / 2126.
52. Horton to SecState, 21 February 1914, USNA RG 59, 867.00, Roll 5. Horton enclosed the translation of an official poster: “In the name of my religion and faith, I want to give you . . . a few words of advice. If your religion is Islam, if your faith is true, your marriage good, and your hearts filled with the light of faith in the Prophet, communicate this advice to [relatives and friends]. . . . In your heart secretly increase the hatred that necessitates this advice, in order that this religion, this Book, the Country, the Nation, may be saved. . . . The Christians have fixed a covetous eye on our country [and] are working to put out of existence our religion and Book. . . . Let us not use the cigarette paper, soap and matches sold [by Greeks].”
53. G. Henry Wright, Birmingham Chamber of Commerce, to Assistant Secretary, Commercial Department, Board of Trade, Whitehall, 22 May 1914, UKNA FO 371 / 2126.
54. Mallet to Grey, 26 February 1914, UKNA FO 371 / 2126.
55. Greek Patriarchate, “Persecution of the Greeks . . . ,” 90, a letter by the metropolitans of Smyrna, Ephesus, etc. to the embassies in Constantinople, 25 June 1914.
56. Greek Patriarchate, “Persecution of the Greeks . . . ,” 57.
57.
Kieser,
Talaat Pasha, 176.
58. Quoted in Hofmann, “Cumulative Genocide,” 53.
59. Greek Patriarchate, “Persecution of the Greeks . . . ,” 64.
60. Horton to Morgenthau, 9 June 1914, USNA RG 59, 867.00, Roll 5.
61. Horton to Morgenthau, 9 June 1914, USNA RG 59, 867.00, Roll 5.
62. Bjornlund, “Danish Sources on the Destruction of Ottoman Greeks,” 152.
63. Horton to SecState, 18 June 1914, and Morris to Horton, 17 June 1914, USNA RG 59, 867.00, Roll 5. A second massacre occurred earlier, on 31 May, in Sere- Keuy (Saraköy), near Menemen (see Greek Patriarchate, “Persecution of the Greeks . . . ,” 79–81; and Bjornlund, “Danish Sources on the Destruction of Ottoman Greeks,” 155).
64. Mourelos, “The 1914 Persecutions of Greeks,” 121–122.
65. Bjornlund, “Danish Sources on the Destruction of Ottoman Greeks,” 157.
66. Greek Patriarchate, “Persecution of the Greeks . . . ,” 55.
67. “Memo Compiled in Eastern Dept.,” possibly from 26 February 1920, UKNA FO 371 / 5191.
68. Morgenthau to Lansing, 18 November 1915, FDRL, HM Sr. Papers, Letters 474. According to Erol, in line with Talaat Pasha’s estimate, “some 163,975” Ottoman Greeks “escaped or migrated” to
Notes to Pages 155–159
Greece by June 1914 (Erol, Ottoman Crisis, 182, 286n51). According to the Greek Foreign Ministry,
“60,926” Greeks were forced to flee Eastern Thrace during January– July 1914 (Mourelos, “The 1914
Persecutions of Greeks, 116). Bjornlund estimates that altogether “150–200,000” Greeks were displaced from their homes before the start of WWI (Bjornlund, “Danish Sources on the Destruction of Ottoman Greeks,” 141n12, 155).
69.
Einstein,
Inside Constantinople, entry for 1 May 1915, 11.
70. McCarthy writes that the world war “in the east began on 2 November 1914, when Rus sian forces moved south to occupy the border regions of Bayazit, Diyadin, and Karakilise” (McCarthy, Death and Exile, 179). This is untrue. The war began with the shelling of Rus sian Black Sea ports and the sinking of Russian vessels by the newly- acquired Ottoman German battlecruiser, the Goeben (renamed the Yavuz Sultan Selim), on 29 October, the response to which were the Rus sian declaration of war and cross- border attacks.
71.
Rogan,
Fall of the Ottomans, 106; and Kevorkian, Armenian Genocide, 220.
72.
Rogan,
Fall of the Ottomans, 102.
73.
Kevorkian,
Armenian Genocide, 220.
74.
Ford,
Eden to Armageddon, 121–137.
75.
Rogan,
Fall of the Ottomans, 107.
76.
Ford,
Eden to Armageddon, 127.
77.
Akçam, Genocide of the Armenians, 48. See also Rogan, Fall of the Ottomans, 114.
78.
Kevorkian,
Armenian Genocide, 221.
79.
Suny,
They Can Live in the Desert, 243.
80.
Kevorkian,
Armenian Genocide, 221.
81.
Kevorkian,
Armenian Genocide, 221–222.
82. During the Tanzimat reforms in the nineteenth century, conscription was made mandatory for members of all religions, but Christians and Jews were allowed to pay an indemnity, called “bedel,” to receive exemption.
83.
Adanır, “Non- Muslims in the Ottoman Army,” 123–124.
84.
German Foreign Office, 12.
85.
Zürcher, “Ottoman Labour Battalions,” 4.
86.
Akçam, Shameful Act, 142.
87.
Zürcher, “Ottoman Labour Battalions,” 1.
88.
Akçam, Shameful Act, 144.
89.
Torosyan,
Çanakkale’den Filistin Cephesi’ne, 147; see also 152.
90.
Zürcher, “Ottoman Labour Battalions,” 5.
91.
Zürcher, “Ottoman Labour Battalions,” 4.
92.
Zürcher, “Ottoman Labour Battalions,” 4. See also testimony of Klara Pfeiffer, German Foreign Office, 13, 584.
93. This is corroborated by vali of Mamuretulaziz to Interior Ministry, 19 June 1915, BOA, DH. ŞFR, 476 / 43, saying that most of the 1,500 men of the labor battalions (and Armenian revolutionaries) were deported.
94. Patriarchate report dated 30 November 1920, in Malta file of Suleiman Faik Pasha, UKNA FO
371 / 6501.
95. Ibid. See also Testimony of Tacy W. Atkinson, 11 April 1918, USNA RG 256, “Inquiry Documents,” 1917–1919, no. 210, Roll 39. Perhaps it was their remains that Rafael de Nogales saw in late June: He was drawn to “black bundles” that “proved to be nothing less than the swollen and worm- eaten corpses of dozens and perhaps hundreds of Armenian soldiers, whom the escort had evidently led from the road and knifed without mercy” (De Nogales, Four Years, 149).
Notes to Pages 159–162
96. Patriarchate report dated 30 November 1920, in Malta file of Suleiman Faik Pasha, UKNA FO
371 / 6501. Story corroborated by Alma Johansson’s report, 17 November 1915, attached to Morgenthau to SecState, 9 November 1915, U.S. Official Rec ords, 333–337. See also translation of ARF report dated 5 September 1915, attached to Morgenthau to SecState, 17 September 1915, USNA RG 59, 867.4016, Roll 44; and report by Mary Riggs, “War- Time Events in Harpoot, Turkey,” 19 August 1916, Houghton ABC 16.9.7, A467, Reel 716.
&nb
sp; 97.
See
Kevorkian,
Armenian Genocide, 398.
98.
Dadrian,
History of the Armenian Genocide, 325–326; Dadrian, “Secret Young- Turk Ittihadist Conference,” 185–186; and Dadrian and Akçam, Judgment at Istanbul, 184.
99. Dadrian, “Secret Young- Turk Ittihadist Conference,” 185–186. See also Dadrian and Akçam, Judgment at Istanbul, 184. Later that year Vehib Pasha was arrested and indicted for “abuse of office.”
He escaped to Italy and remained in exile until the late 1930s.
100.
Kunzler,
In the Land of Blood and Tears, 16–20.
101.
Morgenthau,
Ambassador Morgenthau’s Story, 302–304. See also Zürcher, “Ottoman Labour Battalions,” 1.
102.
De
Nogales,
Four Years, 124–126.
103. Raynolds to Friends, 26 November 1912, Houghton ABC 16.9.7, A467, Reel 715; Interior Ministry to Van vilayet, 6 March 1915, BOA, DH. EUM. MEM, 61 / 68; Yarrow to Friends, 4 December 1914, Houghton ABC 16.9.7, A467, Reel 717; and Elizabeth Ussher to Family (diary of the insurrection), 8
May 1915, Houghton ABC 16.9.7, A467, Reel 717.
104. Yarrow to Friends, 7 November 1914, Houghton ABC 16.9.7, A467, Reel 717.
105. Raynolds to Barton, 13 November 1914, Houghton ABC 16.9.7, A467, Reel 715.
106. Gaunt, “Ottoman Treatment of the Assyrians,” 247.
107. Yarrow to Friends, 7 November 1914, Houghton ABC 16.9.7, A467, Reel 717.
108.
Kevorkian,
Armenian Genocide, 231–233; Suny, They Can Live in the Desert, 255–257; and De Nogales, Four Years, 66.
109. Anderson, “Who Still Talked,” 204.
110. Undated ARF Report (but from March and April 1915), USNA RG 59, 867.4016, Roll 43; Van vilayet to Interior Ministry, 23 April 1915, BOA, DH. ŞFR, 468 / 76; Diyarbekir to Interior Ministry, 21
April 1915, BOA, DH ŞFR, 469 / 97; Mattie Raynolds to George Raynolds, 29 May 1915, Houghton ABC
16.9.7, A467, Reel 715; correspondence between Interior Ministry and Van, Erzurum, and Bitlis vilayets, 8 March 1915, BOA, DH. EUM. MEM, 61 / 3; Interior Ministry to Baghdad vilayet, 22 April 1915, BOA, DH. ŞFR, 468 / 70.
111. Van vilayet to Interior Ministry, 20 April 1915, BOA, DH. ŞFR, 468 / 36; 21 April 1915, BOA, DH. ŞFR. 468 / 55; and 22 April 1915, BOA. DH. ŞFR. 468 / 67.
112. Scheubner- Richter to Wangenheim, 15 May 1915, German Foreign Office, 178. For the development of Wangenheim’s understanding of the issues, see Anderson, “Who Still Talked,” 204–205.
113. Anderson, “Who Still Talked.”
114. Van vilayet to Interior Ministry, 26 April 1915, BOA, DH. ŞFR, 468 / 126. See also Morgenthau to family, 27 April 1915, FDRL, HM Sr. Papers, Letters 474; and UK Foreign Office memo, 11 May 1915, UKNA FO 371 / 2488.
115. Elizabeth Ussher to family, 8 May 1915 and 30 May 1915, Houghton ABC 16.9.7, A467, Reel 717. See also Mattie Raynolds to George Raynolds, 29 May 1915, Houghton ABC 16.9.7, A467, Reel 715.
116. An En glishman claimed that “the general testimony in Van is that the Turks were entirely opposed to the whole anti- Armenian arrangement and were forced into it by the Committee of Union and
Notes to Pages 162–168
Pro gress” (Macallum to Bryce, 10 June 1916, Bodl. MS Lord Bryce Papers 202). Ussher also attested to the low enthusiasm of Turkish soldiers.
117. SecState, 30 April 1915, USNA RG 59, Roll 43; and Morgenthau to family, 4 May 1915, FDRL, HM Sr. Papers, Letters 474. See also Morgenthau to Sec. State, 25 May 1915, FDRL, HM Sr. Papers, Letters 473. After the war, Cevdet was accused of being part of the group that met in Erzurum to decide on the massacre of the Armenians (see Malta file of Tahsin Bey, UKNA FO 371 / 6501, Orders). De Nogales describes Halil Pasha as incompetent ( Four Years, 106–107).
118.
De
Nogales,
Four Years, 66, 70, 93.
119. Elizabeth Ussher to family, 8 May 1915, Houghton ABC 16.9.7, A467, Reel 717.
120. Van vilayet to Interior Ministry, 17 May 1915, BOA, DH. ŞFR, 471 / 77.
121. Mattie Raynolds to George Raynolds, 29 May 1915, Houghton ABC 16.9.7, A467, Reel 715; Elizabeth Ussher to family, 30 May 1915, Houghton ABC 16.9.7, A467, Reel 717; and Macallum to Lord Bryce, 10 June 1916, Bodl. MS Lord Bryce Papers 202. See also Interior Ministry’s Security Directorate to Van vilayet, 3 May 1915, BOA, DH. ŞFR, 52 / 200.
122.
De
Nogales,
Four Years, 124–126.
123. George Raynolds to Friends, 15 October 1915, Houghton ABC 16.9.7, A467, Reel 715; and Suny, They Can Live in the Desert, 261–263.
124. Yarrow to Barton, 26 December 1916, Houghton ABC 16.9.7, A467, Reel 717.
125. Gaunt, “Ottoman Treatment of the Assyrians,” 247.
126. Report by Philip Price, 2 January 1914, SAMECA Philip Price Papers.
127.
Kevorkian,
Armenian Genocide, 586.
128. Wangenheim to Bethmann- Hollweg, 26 March 1915, German Foreign Office, 158; and Rossler to Bethmann- Hollweg, 12 April 1915, German Foreign Office, 161. See also Kevorkian, Armenian Genocide, 586; and Wangenheim’s reported remarks cited in Morgenthau to family, 30 March 1915, FDRL, HM Sr. Papers, Letters 474.
129. Rossler to Bethmann Hollweg, 12 April 1895, German Foreign Office, 162; Suny, They Can Live in the Desert, 252–253; and Kevorkian, Armenian Genocide, 587.
130.
Kevorkian,
Armenian Genocide, 587.
131. Consul Jackson (Aleppo) to German Embassy in Constantinople, 30 March 1915,
DE / PA- AA / BoKon / 168, Fr. Alep 376 37 / 38 29; and Woodly to Barton, 23 September 1915, Houghton ABC 16.9.5, A467, Reel 672. See also Padel to Embassy and Wangenheim to Aleppo consulate, both 30
March 1915, German Foreign Office, 160.
132. Paraphrase of report received from “The Field Staff of the Caucasian Army,” March 1915, UKNA FO 371 / 2484.
133.
McCarthy,
Death and Exile, 185, 180, 193; and Wangenheim to Bethmann- Hollweg, 26
March 1915, DE / PA- AA / R14085, 1915- A-11682.
134. Wangenheim to Bethmann- Hollweg, 26 March 1915, DE / PA- AA / R14085, 1915- A-11682.
135.
Dündar, Crime of Numbers, 72–73.
136. Report by Dr. John Merrill enclosed in the letter sent by Jackson to Morgenthau, 21 April 1915, USNA RG 59, 867.00, Roll 6. See also Blank to Suchard, 15 April 1915, DE / PA- AA / R14086, 1915- A-17735, enclosure 3.
137. Report by M. Briquet, teacher at Tarsus College, attached to Morgenthau to SecState, 20
July 1915, U.S. Official Rec ords, 110–111.
138. Dodd to Morgenthau, 6 May 1915, FDRL, HM Sr. Papers, Letters 473.
139. Lepsius to Foreign Office, 22 June 1915, German Foreign Office, 213.
140.
Dündar, Crime of Numbers, 73.
Notes to Pages 168–175
141. Blank to Suchard, 15 April 1915, DE / PA- AA / R14086, 1915- A-17735, enclosure 3.
142. Merrill report enclosed in letter sent by Jackson to Morgenthau, 21 April 1915, USNA RG 59, 867.00, Roll 6. See also Blank to Suchard, enclosure 3, 15 April 1915, DE / PA- AA / R14086, 1915- A-17735.
143. Celal Bey, Memoirs, “The Armenian Affair, Its Reasons and Effects,” part 2, Vakit, 12 December 1918. Celal published his memoirs in installments in the newspaper Vakit.
144. Missionary Blank in Marash to Rössler in Aleppo, DE / PA- AA / R14086, 1915- A-17735, enclosure 2 (15 April 1915). See also Jackson to Morgenthau, quoting Rev. Leslie of Urfa, 28 June 1915, USNA RG 59, 867.4016, Roll 43; and Morgenthau to SecState, enclosure 5, 20 July 1915, USNA RG 59, 867.4016, Roll 43.
145. Report by Leslie dated 28 June 1915, included in Morgenthau to Sec. State, 23 August 1915, USNA RG 59, 867.4016, Roll 43
.
146.
Suny,
They Can Live in the Desert, 253; and Dündar, Crime of Numbers, 85.
147. Marash to Interior Ministry, 12 May 1915, BOA, DH. ŞFR, 470 / 134, and 17 May 1915, BOA, DH. ŞFR, 471 / 103. See also report submitted by ARF to Morgenthau, 20 July 1915, USNA RG 59, 867.4016, Roll 43. Later, Zeytun was renamed Suleymanli.
148. Morgenthau to SecState, 25 May 1915, USNA RG 59, Roll 43.
149.
Kevorkian,
Armenian Genocide, 587–588.
150. Appointment of Interior Ministry committee, 15 May 1915, BOA, DH. I. UM, 5–1 / 3.
151. Muhacir Directorate (IAMM, Iskan- I Aşayir ve Muhacirin Müdüriyeti) to Aleppo vilayet, 20
April 1915, BOA, DH. ŞFR, 52 / 48. See also Report from Aleppo vilayet to Interior Ministry, 21 April 1915, BOA, DH. ŞFR, 468 / 54.
152. Jackson to Morgenthau, 19 May 1915, USNA RG 59, Roll 43. See also Jackson to Morgenthau, 28 June 1915, USNA RG 59, 867.4016, Roll 43.
153. ARF Report from Antep, 19 April 1915, attached to Morgenthau to SecState, 20 July 1915, U.S.
Official Rec ords, 95.
4. The Eastern River
1. Celal Bey, Memoirs, “The Armenian Affair, Its Reasons and Effects,” Vakit, 12 December 1918.
