The Thirty-Year Genocide

by Benny Morris

  256. Ottoman Government, “Aide Memoire,” 11 March 1919, UKNA FO 371 / 4165.

  257. See, for example, Irene Gaylord, Konia, to NER managing director, C’ple, 26 June 1920, USNA RG 84, Turkey (Constantinople), Vol. 419.

  258. Major E. W. C. Noel, untitled memo, 12 March 1919, UKNA FO 371 / 4173.

  259. “A.J.T.,” untitled memorandum, 18 February 1918, UKNA FO 371 / 3400.

  260. Wardrop (Moscow) to FO, 18 July 1918, UKNA FO 371 / 3402.

  261. Rawlinson to Intranscau, Tiflis, undated, UKNA FO 371 / 4159.

  262. GOC in C. Mesopotamia to WO, 10 December 1918, UKNA FO 371 / 3405.

  263. C. Marling (Teheran) to FO, 4 September 1918, UKNA FO 371 / 3400.

  264. Turkish Foreign Ministry, “Memorandum No. 16178,” undated, attached to Ravndal to Secstate, 24 June 1919, USNA RG 59, 867.4016, Roll 46.

  265. Ottoman “Note to British, French and Italian Commissioners,” 11 January 1919, USNA RG 84, Vol. 405.

  266. Edib to Bristol, 11 November 1920, USNA RG 84, Turkey (Constantinople), Vol. 439. The Turkish General Kiazim Karabekir Pasha decribed Armenian atrocities around Kars in an undated, untitled report, attached to Bristol to SecState, 19 January 1921, USNA RG 84, Turkey (Constantinople), Vol. 438.

  267. Angora Government report, untitled, attached to Halide Edib to Bristol, 4 November 1920, USNA RG 59, 860J.4016 / 50–860J.4016P81 / 99, Roll 5.

  268. Bristol to SecState, 29 June 1921, USNA RG 84, Turkey (Constantinople), Vol. 438; and Crutcher via USS Overton, 26 June 1921, USNA RG 84, Turkey (Constantinople), Vol. 439.

  269. Rosalind Toynbee to her mother, Lady Mary Murray, 18 June 1921, Bodl. MS Toynbee 50.

  270. The description by Shaw ( From Empire to Republic, vol. 2, 865–883) of the be hav ior of the Armenian troops as murderous and of French rule in Cilicia as “harsh” is highly tendentious and exaggerated, echoing Turkish spokesmen. Shaw speaks of the legionnaires “killing, raping, ravaging and robbing every one and every thing in sight,” but in effect offers a description (870–871) of French and Armenian be hav ior as corrupt, discriminatory, and harassing rather than lethal or barbaric.

  271. Bristol to W. T. Ellis, 26 February 1920, LC, Bristol Papers 31.

  272. Stanley Kerr, “The Story of Marash,” undated but prob ably from July– August 1920, Houghton ABC 16.9.1, Vol. 2; and Kerr, untitled “statement,” 22 July 1920, USNA RG 59, 860J.01 / 520–

  860J.4016 / 49, Roll 4.

  273. Wooley to FO, 26 December 1918, UKNA FO 371 / 3400. Kerr, “The Story of Marash,” undated but prob ably from July– August 1920, Houghton ABC 16.9.1, Vol. 2, said that 20,000 had returned.

  274. Peet to Barton, 2 March 1920, Houghton ABC 16.9.3, Vol. 52.

  275.

  Shaw,

  From Empire to Republic, vol. 2, 890.

  276.

  Zeidner,

  Tricolor over the Taurus, 168; and Kerr, Lions of Marash, 63.

  277.

  Zeidner,

  Tricolor over the Taurus, 169–171.

  278. Accounts of the “flag incident” are confused. This description is compiled from information provided in Armenian Women’s Association to Bristol, 5 March 1920, enclosing, undated, “The Events of Marash,” unsigned, USNA RG 84, Turkey (Constantinople), Vol. 419; and Chambers, “Memorandum Concerning the Marash Disturbances of January 21 to February 10, 1920,” undated, enclosed in de Robeck to Curzon, 4 March 1920, UKNA FO 371 / 5044. According to Zeidner, Tricolor over the Taurus, 168n200, Kemal had ordered the locals “not to yield” over the flag. See also report compiled by the Armenian Patriarchate, attached to de Robek to Curzon, 7 April 1920, UKNA FO 371 / 5047; and Hartunian, Neither to Laugh nor to Weep, 128–131.

  Notes to Pages 334–336

  279. Unsigned, “Copy of a Portion of a letter from Marash to Dr. Lambert, Re: Po liti cal Situation,” 4

  January 1920, USNA RG 59, 867.00, Roll 8.

  280. “ Sister E.” to Armenian Catholic Patriarch, Constantinople, 12 January 1920, USNA RG 59, 867.00.

  281.

  Kerr,

  Lions of Marash, 181.

  282. Chambers, “Memorandum Concerning the Marash Disturbances . . . ,” UKNA FO 371 / 5044.

  283.

  Kerr,

  Lions of Marash, 92–94, says the legionnaires were sent out to bring back and guard a supply convoy from Bel Pounar.

  284. “Extracts from Diary of YMCA Secretary [C.F.H.] Crathern Concerning the Siege and War in Marash Jan. 20th to Feb. 11th 1920,” enclosed in Jackson to Bristol, 4 March 1920, USNA RG 84, Turkey (Constantinople), Vol. 415 (hereafter Crathern, Diary); and Kerr, untitled memorandum, 22 July 1920, USNA RG 59, 860J.01 / 520–860J.4016 / 49, Roll 4. See also report compiled by the Armenian Patriarchate, attached to de Robek to Curzon, 7 April 1920, UKNA FO 371 / 5047.

  285. Rechid Pacha to Defrance, 24 January 1920, USNA RG 84, Turkey (Constantinople), Vol. 421.

  286. Crathern, Diary, entry for 21 January 1920; and Kerr, “Story of Marash,” Houghton ABC 16.9.1, Vol. 2.

  287. Admiral D.N.S. in Beirut to the Naval Ministry, Paris, 8 February 1920, SHD, GR N7, 4165.

  288. Unsigned, “The Following is the Story Told by Boghos Masseredjian, a Resident of Marash Who left Marash with the French, Walked to Islahie and Went (?) by Train to Aleppo,” undated, USNA RG 84, Turkey (Constantinople), Vol. 421.

  289.

  Kerr,

  Lions of Marash, 95–97.

  290.

  Zeidner,

  Tricolor over the Taurus, 206–207.

  291.

  Zeidner,

  Tricolor over the Taurus, 205–206.

  292.

  Zeidner,

  Tricolor over the Taurus, 190n223. Zeidner, however, adds that between early December 1919 and 11 January 1920, Kemal repeatedly “instructed his lieutenants in the South to avoid attacking either the French or the Armenians” (197) and, perhaps confusingly, that “during . . . January through April” Kemal’s aides, Kilic Ali and Ali Saip, had “quickly created a general conflagration” (201) in the South.

  293.

  Kerr,

  Lions of Marash, 98–99.

  294. Evelyn Trostle, NER Marash, to ?, 22 January 1920, USNA RG 84, Turkey (Constantinople), Vol. 419.

  295. “The Following is the Story Told by Boghos Masseredjian . . . ,” USNA RG 84, Turkey (Constantinople), Vol. 421; and Armenian National Union of Adana, untitled memorandum, appended to Zaven, the Armenian Patriarch, to Phipps, 24 March 1920, UKNA FO 371 / 5044.

  296. Kerr, “The Story of Marash,” Houghton ABC 16.9.1, Vol. 2.

  297. Report compiled by the Armenian Patriarchate, attached to de Robeck to Curzon, 7 April 1920, UKNA FO 371 / 5047.

  298. Mrs. M. C. Wilson, “Marash. (Written as a Diary.) Siege of Marash. Fourteenth Day. Feb. 3,”

  USNA RG 84, Turkey (Constantinople), Vol. 419. The Armenians felt that the French were deliberately refraining from protecting them (see W. S. Dodd to managing director, 3 February 1920, Houghton ABC

  16.9.3, Vol. 50. The French, he felt, “are careless of whether Armenians are massacred or not”).

  299. Crathern, Diary, entry for 23 January 1920.

  300. Crathern, Diary, entries for 22, 23, and 24 January 1920; “The Following is the Story Told by Boghos Masseredjian . . . ,” USNA RG 84, Turkey (Constantinople), Vol. 421; and Chambers, “Memorandum . . . ,” UKNA FO 371 / 5044.

  301. Kerr, “The Story of Marash,” Houghton ABC 16.9.1, Vol. 2.

  302.

  Kerr,

  Lions of Marash, 101–102.

  Notes to Pages 336–338

  303. Wilson to Jackson, 1 February 1920, Houghton ABC 16.9.3, Vol. 52.

  304. Chambers, “Memorandum . . . ,” UKNA FO 371 / 5044.

  305. Crathern, Diary, entry for 24 January 1920.

  306. Mrs. Wilson, “. . . Siege of Marash . . . ,” 3 February 1920, USNA RG 84, Turkey (Constantinople), Vol. 419.

  307. Evelyn Trostle to ?, 22 J
anuary 1920, USNA RG 84, Turkey (Constantinople), Vol. 419. The letter was prob ably sent in February.

  308. Crathern, Diary, entry for 24 January 1920.

  309. Crathern, Diary, entry for 25 January 1920; and Kerr, “The Story of Marash,” Houghton ABC

  16.9.1, Vol. 2.

  310. Crathern, Diary, entry for 4 February 1920.

  311. Crathern, Diary, entry for 26 January 1920.

  312. Crathern, Diary, entry for 28 January 1920.

  313. Jackson to Bristol, 27 February 1920, USNA RG 84, Turkey (Constantinople), Vol. 415.

  314. Crathern, Diary, entries for 25 and 29 January 1920.

  315. Crathern, Diary, entry for 5 February 1920. Kerr recalled a meal of “mule roast with mule gravy over our mashed potatoes” (Kerr, “The Story of Marash,” Houghton ABC 16.9.1, Vol. 2).

  316. Dodd, director of NER Adana, to managing director, Constantinople, 3 February 1920, Houghton ABC 16.9.3, Vol. 50.

  317. Armenian Patriarchate, untitled, undated report attached to Bristol to Secretary of State, 22

  April 1920, USNA RG 59, 860J.01 / 520–860J.4016 / 49, Roll 4.

  318. Chief Agent of Lord Mayor of London’s Fund for Relief of Armenian Refugees, to ?, 11 February 1920, UKNA FO 371 / 5041. Following the murders Kemal apparently ordered his forces not to harm missionaries (Kemal to Halide Edili Hamin, 16 February 1920, attached to Halide Edili to Bristol, 1 March 1920, USNA RG 59, 860J.01 / 520–860J.4016 / 49, Roll 4).

  319. Kemal to Mahmoud, GOC 20th Army Corps (?), 24 January 1920, in General Staff “Intelligence,”

  Army of the Black Sea, Constantinople, “Weekly Report No. 71, for Week Ending 2nd June, 1920,” UKNA FO 371 / 5169.

  320. Dr. R. A. Lambert, director NER, Aleppo, to Major Nicol, 11 March 1920, Houghton ABC

  16.9.1, Vol. 1.

  321. Jackson to Bristol, 27 May 1920, USNA RG 84, Turkey (Constantinople), Vol. 421.

  322. A collection of “tele grams” from Turkish committees in dozens of towns, attached to Bristol to Secretary of State, 7 February 1920, USNA RG 59, 867.00, Roll 8.

  323. A tele gram from Cheih Ziaddin, Abdullah and Hadji Mehmed, of Castamouni, to ?, 1 February 1920, USNA RG 84, Turkey (Constantinople), Vol. 419.

  324. G.S.1, GHQ, EEF, “Note on the Situation in Northern Syria and Cilicia, Period Approximately 1st January to 20th February 1920,” 23 February 1920, attached to G. H. Bell to DMI, 23 February 1920, UKNA FO 371 / 5044.

  325. De Robeck to Curzon, 4 February 1920, UKNA FO 371 / 4162.

  326. Jackson to Bristol, 13 February 1920, USNA RG 84, Turkey (Constantinople), Vol. 419. See also Report compiled by the Armenian Patriarchate, attached to de Robek to Curzon, 7 April 1920, UKNA FO 371 / 5047. See also Hartunian, Neither to Laugh nor to Weep, 145–146.

  327.

  Kerr,

  Lions of Marash, 155–163, 166.

  328. The French subsequently claimed that Querette had misinterpreted his instructions and was recalled to France to “answer for his conduct.” Col o nel Robert Normand, commander of the column, was

  “reprimanded” (unsigned but by an American missionary, “Statement Regarding Interview with General Gouraud and His Secretary,” undated but c. 12 May 1920, Houghton ABC 16.9.3, Vol. 52).

  Notes to Pages 338–340

  329. Crathern, Diary, entry for 10 February 1920; and Kerr, “The Story of Marash,” Houghton ABC

  16.9.1, Vol. 2.

  330. Crathern, Diary, entries for 9 and 10 February 1920; and Dr. M. C. Wilson, director NER, Marash, to Major Arnold, 9 February 1920, USNA RG 84, Turkey (Constantinople), Vol. 419.

  331. “The Following . . . Boghos Masseredjian . . . ,” USNA RG 84, Turkey (Constantinople), Vol.

  421.

  332. Crathern, Diary, entry for 10 February 1920.

  333. Kerr, “The Story of Marash,” Houghton ABC 16.9.1, Vol. 2.

  334.

  Hartunian,

  Neither to Laugh nor to Weep, 144.

  335. Kerr, “The Story of Marash,” Houghton ABC 16.9.1, Vol. 2; L. P. Chambers to Lord Bryce, “The Fighting at Marash, Jan 21– Feb. 10, 1920,” 4 March 1920, Bodl. MS Lord Bryce Papers 206; and Bishop Naroyan (Constantinople) to Nubar Pasha, 25 February 1920, UKNA FO 371 / 5042. The bishop spoke of 3,000 Armenians “massacred” trying to join the retreat and of 16,000 massacred all told. Chambers wrote of 2,000 Armenians who left town on the morning of February 11, but were “cut to pieces. . . . Barely a score reached safety.”

  336. Constantinople Branch, M.I.1.c., “The Situation in Marash,” 3 February 1920, attached to de Robeck to Curzon, 11 February 1920, UKNA FO 371 / 5043.

  337. Crathern, Diary, entry for 12 February 1920.

  338.

  Kerr,

  Lions of Marash, 189.

  339. Constantinople Branch, M.I.1.c., “The Situation in Marash,” 3 February 1920, attached to de Robeck to Curzon, 11 February 1920, UKNA FO 371 / 5043; and “The Following . . . Boghos Masseredjian . . . ,” USNA RG 84, Turkey (Constantinople), Vol. 421.

  340. Kerr, “The Story of Marash,” Houghton ABC 16.9.1, Vol. 2.

  341.

  Kerr,

  Lions of Marash, 190.

  342. Kerr, “The Story of Marash,” Houghton ABC 16.9.1, Vol. 2.

  343. Crathern, Diary, entry for 14 February 1920; and “The Following . . . Boghos Masseredjian . . . ,”

  USNA RG 84, Turkey (Constantinople), Vol. 421.

  344. “The Following . . . Boghos Masseredjian . . . ,” USNA RG 84, Turkey (Constantinople), Vol.

  421.

  345. Crathern (Mersin) to Major D. G. Arnold, managing director NER, 17 February 1920, USNA RG 84, Turkey (Constantinople), Vol. 419. According to British intelligence, “between 15 and 20,000

  Armenians perished” (Rendel, “Turkish Massacres and Persecutions of Minorities Since the Armistice,”

  20 March 1922, UKNA FO 371 / 7876).

  346. Curzon, “Memorandum,” 6 March 1920, UKNA FO 371 / 5103.

  347. Unsigned report sent by French commanding officer, “Turquie d’Asie,” 8 March 1920, SHD, GR

  N7, 4165.

  348. R. A. Lambert to Major Nicol, 11 March 1920, Houghton ABC 16.9.1, Vol. 1.

  349. Knabenshue (Beirut) to SecState, 20 February 1920, USNA RG 59, 867.00, Roll 8.

  350. Bristol to Lambert, 20 May 1920, enclosing report by Armenian Patriarch, USNA RG 84, Turkey (Constantinople), Vol. 415; and Lambert to Major Nicol, 11 March 1920, Houghton ABC

  16.9.1, Vol. 1.

  351. Arnold to Bristol, 27 February 1920, quoting (extract) Dodd to Arnold, 22 February 1920, USNA RG 84, Turkey (Constantinople), Vol. 419; and Kerr, “The Story of Marash,” Houghton ABC 16.9.1, Vol. 2.

  352. Lambert to Major Nicol, 11 March 1920, Houghton ABC 16.9.1, Vol. 1.

  353. M. C. Wilson to ?, 26 February 1920, Houghton ABC 16.9.1, Vol. 1.

  354. Armenian National Union, Aleppo, to Jackson, 11 September 1920, USNA RG 59,

  860J.4016P81 / 600–860J.48 / 199, Roll 7.

  Notes to Pages 341–344

  355. Jackson to Bristol, 14 April 1920, USNA RG 84, Turkey (Constantinople), Vol. 418; and Nicol to ?, 14 June 1920, USNA RG 59, 867.00, Roll 9.

  356. Kerr, untitled memorandum written on board USS John D. Edwards, 22 July 1920, USNA RG

  59, 860J.01 / 520–860J.4016 / 49, Roll 4.

  357. Lyman to Barton, 8 February 1921, USNA RG 59, 860J.4016P81 / 600–860J.48 / 199, Roll 7.

  Kerr, “The Story of Marash,” Houghton ABC 16.9.1, Vol. 2.

  358. Stanley Kerr to Doolittle, 29 August 1921, USNA RG 84, Turkey (Constantinople), Vol. 438; and entry for 22 June 1922, LC, Bristol Papers, War Diary.

  359. De Robeck to Curzon, 2 March 1920, UKNA FO 371 / 5402.

  360. Bristol to Barton, 19 October 1920, LC, Bristol Papers 32.

  361. Dr. A. Nakashian, Constantinople, to Miss Wallis, 27 February 1920, Houghton ABC 16.9.1, Vol.

  1.

  362. Peet to Barton, 2 March 1920, Houghton
ABC 16.9.3, Vol. 52.

  363. Curzon, “Memorandum,” 6 March 1920, UKNA FO 371 / 5103.

  364. De Robeck to Curzon, 16 March 1920, UKNA FO 371 / 5043.

  365. De Robeck to ?, 15 March 1920, UKNA FO 371 / 5042.

  366. “Weekly Summary of Intelligence Reports Issued by M.I.1.c., Constantinople Branch, for Week ending 5th February, 1920,” UKNA FO 371 / 5165.

  367. Armenian Patriarchate, untitled, undated report attached to Bristol to Secretary of State, 22

  April 1920, USNA RG 59 860J.01 / 520–860J.4016 / 49, Roll 4.

  368. Constantinople Branch, M.I.1.c., “The Situation at Marash,” 3 February 1920, attached to de Robeck to Curzon, 11 February 1920, UKNA FO 371 / 5043.

  369. Kemal, “Message Submitted to H.I.M., the Sultan, by the Great National Assembly,” apparently from 1 May 1920, in Weekly Report No. 70, General Staff Intelligence, Army of the Black Sea, 26 May 1920, UKNA FO 371 / 5168.