by Benny Morris
667. Rumbold to Curzon, 3 January 1921, UKNA FO 371 / 6561.
668. Forbes to Lord Riddell, 30 April 1921, an extract attached to Riddell to Vansittart, 18 May 1921, UKNA FO 371 / 6492.
669. Horton to Bristol, 19 April 1921, USNA RG 84, Turkey (Constantinople), Vol. 437. Horton says that few Ottoman Christians actually volunteered. But there can be little doubt regarding their revanchist urges. The British consul in Smyrna described one group of recruits tearing off fezzes, insulting Turkish schoolchildren, and then shooting “indiscriminately” from train win dows (Lamb to Rumbold, 1 April 1921, UKNA FO 371 / 6492).
670. Swedish Legation, Constantinople, to US High Commission, 7 March 1921, and enclosed letter of complaint from the Sublime Porte, USNA RG 84, Turkey (Constantinople), Vol. 438.
671. Ahmed Mouhtar, Ankara Government foreign minister, to Allied foreign ministers, 7 April 1921, USNA RG 84, Turkey (Constantinople), Vol. 438.
672. Sublime Porte to ?, 6 April 1921, USNA RG 84, Turkey (Constantinople), Vol. 438.
673. Entry for 2 April 1921, LC, Bristol Papers, War Diary.
674. Hadji Hassan, Rachid Aha, etc., to ?, date unclear, 1921, USNA RG 84, Turkey (Constantinople), Vol. 438; Abdul Vahab, Habib Pacha Zade, etc., to US High Commissioner, 16 April 1921, USNA RG
84, Turkey (Constantinople), Vol. 438; and Ibrahim Oglou Ismail, Hassan Oglou Halil Ibrahim, etc., to the US High Commissioner, 9 May 1921, USNA RG 84, Turkey (Constantinople), Vol. 438.
675. Fevzi, “temporary” foreign minister, Ankara, to high commissioners, 7 June 1921, USNA RG 84, Turkey (Constantinople), Vol. 438.
676.
USS
Sands, “Diary at Samsun,” entry for 8 March 1922, USNA RG 84, Turkey (Constantinople), Vol. 463.
677.
Smith,
Ionian Vision, footnote on 218.
678. Constantine to Princess Paola of Saxe- Weimar, 9 August 1921, q. in Smith, Ionian Vision, 232.
679.
Smith,
Ionian Vision, 211–212.
Notes to Pages 477–481
680. Rendel, “Atrocities in Asia Minor etc. Protests Received by His Majesty’s Government, and Action Taken” (a draft memorandum), 28 December 1921, UKNA FO 371 / 7875. Rendel noted, “It has been far easier to deal with atrocities committed by the Greeks than with those committed by the Turks.” The Greeks allowed Allied officers free access and Greek atrocities were “definitely limited” in time and space.
With the Turks, “both the area and the period covered are far greater.” See also Charles Walker, Admiralty, to undersecretary of state, UKNA FO 371 / 6523, 16 July 1921, and attached “Terms of Reference.”
681. “Report of the Inter- Allied Commission Instructed to Conduct Enquiries Regarding the Excesses Committed Against the Turkish Population in the Regions of Yalova and Guemlek,” 23 May 1921, and
“Diary of the Inter- Allied Commission Sent to Enquire into the Incidents in the Regions of Guemlek and Yalova,” published, with some passages blacked out, in “Turkey No. 1 (1921), Reports on Atrocities in the Districts of Yalova and Guemlek and in the Ismid Peninsula,” Cmd. 1478, 1921, Bodl. MS Toynbee Papers 52.
682. Rumbold to FO, 21 May 1921, UKNA FO 371 / 6512.
683. Entry for 27 May 1921, LC, Bristol Papers, War Diary.
684. “Commission of Enquiry for the Ismidt Peninsula to Sir H. Rumbold,” 18 May 1921, and attached “Schedule,” both enclosed in Rumbold to Curzon, 20 May 1920, UKNA FO 371 / 6514.
685. “Report of the Ismid Commission of Enquiry,” 1 June 1921, in “Turkey No. 1 (1921), Reports on Atrocities in the Districts of Yalova and Guemlek and in the Ismid Peninsula,” Cmd. 1478, 1921, Bodl.
MS Toynbee Papers 52.
686. A. Toynbee to Ryan, 22 June 1921, Bodl. MS Toynbee Papers 52.
687. Gehri, “Mission d’Enquête en Anatolie (12–22 mai 1921),” Bodl. MS Toynbee Papers 52.
688. Rosalind Toynbee, C’ple, to Gilbert Murray, 28 May 1921, Bodl. MS Toynbee Papers 50. Rosalind described Admiral Bristol as “an admirable person . . . fair and moderate and unprejudiced.”
689. Rosalind Toynbee to mother, 18 June 1921, Bodl. MS Toynbee Papers 50.
690. G. M. Franks, Gerbaud and de Malso, “Report,” 25 June 1921, attached to Frank Rattigan to Curzon, 30 June 1921, UKNA FO 371 / 6522.
691. Youssouf Kemal to high commissioners, 6 July 1921, USNA RG 59, 860J.4016 / 50–860J.4016
P81 / 99, Roll 5. See also Rattigan to FO, 5 July 1921, UKNA FO 371 / 6521.
692. A. Toynbee to “ Mother,” 5 July 1921, Bodl. MS Toynbee Papers 50.
693. Rosalind Toynbee to Mary Murray (her mother), 5 July 1921, Bodl. MS Toynbee Papers 50.
694. A. Toynbee to Bristol, 7 August 1921, LC, Bristol Papers 35.
695. Rosalind Toynbee, handwritten untitled memorandum, undated, Bodl. MS Toynbee Papers 52.
A typewritten, edited version of this report, titled “Note by Mrs. Arnold Toynbee,” dated 20 September 1921, is in Bodl. MS Toynbee Papers 50. See also McNeill, Arnold J. Toynbee, 106–108.
696. Arnold Toynbee, Smyrna, to Bristol, 7 August 1921, LC, Bristol Papers 35.
697.
Toynbee,
Western Question, 316.
698. Rendel minute, 14 October 1922, UKNA FO 371 / 7955.
699. Toynbee’s reversal from critic of the Turks to sympathizer may have been driven by moral consideration surrounding what he witnessed in Anatolia. Or, he may have anticipated eventual Turkish triumph and wanted to ingratiate himself with the victors. Another pos si ble factor is the alienation from the British upper class he experienced at the time. Toynbee increasingly opposed what he believed were untenable imperialist proj ects. In his notes from the period, Toynbee expressed hope that he might “affect the peace with Turkey, and with luck, might even forestall the threatened clash between po liti cally awakened Islamic peoples and the British Empire.” See McNeill, Arnold J. Toynbee, 80–84, 106–108.
700. Bristol to SecState, 26 May 1921, USNA RG 84, Turkey (Constantinople), Vol. 438.
701. Bristol to SecState, 7 June 1921 (via USS Scorpion), USNA RG 84, Turkey (Constantinople), Vol. 438.
Notes to Pages 481–488
702. Entry for 22 July 1921, LC, Bristol Papers, War Diary.
703. Entry for 20 July 1921, LC, Bristol Papers, War Diary.
704. Bristol to Nicol, 12 August 1921, USNA RG 84, Turkey (Constantinople), Vol. 444.
705. Toynbee to Montgomery, undated but c. June 1922, USNA RG 59, 967.4016, Roll 47.
706. Annie Allen and Florence Billings, “Report on Certain Destroyed Villages in the Turkish Zone in Anatolia,” undated but from September or October 1921, USNA RG 84, Turkey (Constantinople), Vol.
438.
707. Quoted in Rumbold to FO, 6 March 1922, UKNA FO 371 / 7876.
708. Edith Parsons, “Enclosure No. 1 with Dispatch No. 472,” 21 September 1922, USNA RG 84, Turkey (Constantinople), Vol. 465.
709. William Wright (NER) “Report of Devastated Regions in the Broussa Area,” 14 October 1922, USNA RG 84, Turkey (Constantinople), Vol. 464.
710. Untitled memorandum by Perry, New York Herald correspondent, undated but from October 1922, LC, Bristol Papers 37. See also “Copy of Report made by a Turkish Interpreter who accompanied Prof. J. K. Biorge on his Visit to Magnesia, Cassaba, Salikli and Alashehir,” 8 October 1922, USNA RG 84, Turkey (Constantinople), Vol. 466.
711. Minute by Rendel, 14 October 1922, UKNA FO 371 / 7955.
712. Dr. A. Tevfik and ‘Youssouf,’ Committee for the Defence of the Rights of Occidental Thrace, 25
July 1922, and appended “Series of Atrocities Committed by the Greeks in Western Thrace,” USNA RG
84, Turkey (Constantinople), Vol. 466.
713. Granville (Athens) to FO, 8 June 1921, UKNA FO 371 / 6516.
714. “Memorandum by Eyre Crowe Sent to the Prime Minister, 5 pm Nov. 30, 1922,” UKNA FO
371 / 7960. See also Harington to WO, 26 October 1922, UKNA F
O 371 / 7957.
715. Hole to Bentinck, 22 February 1923, UKNA FO 371 / 9089.
716. J. McG. Dawkins (Canea, Crete) to Bentinck (Athens), 10 February 1923, UKNA FO 371 / 9089.
717. Dawkins to Bentinck, 2 March 1923, UKNA FO 371 / 9089.
718. Bentinck to Curzon, 29 (?) April 1923, UKNA FO 371 / 9094.
Conclusion
1.
Suny,
They Can Live in the Desert, 209. By 2016 Turkey’s population, according to official data, was 99.8 percent Muslim, due to lower Christian birthrates and, more importantly, steady Christian emigration, especially after the anti- Greek pogrom in Istanbul in 1955 (see Vryonis, Mechanism of Catastrophe).
2.
Kevorkian,
Armenian Genocide, 693.
3.
Dündar, Crime of Numbers, 150–151.
4.
Akçam, Young Turks’ Crime, 258–261.
5.
Dündar, Crime of Numbers, 150–151. The number presumably includes converts to Islam.
6. Hofmann, “Cumulative Genocide,” 104.
7. Hlamides, “Smyrna Holocaust,” 224–225, especially note 120.
8.
McCarthy,
Death and Exile, 292.
9.
Bloxham,
Great Game of Genocide, 98.
10. Rudolph Rummel, an American po liti cal scientist and statistician, estimated that the Turks and their helpers killed “from 3,500,000 to over 4,300,000 Armenians, Greeks, Nestorians and other Christians” between 1900 and 1923 (Rummel, Statistics of Democide, 78). He did not include in his estimate those murdered before 1900 or in 1924. In any event, his total seems vastly inflated and at odds with the estimates of most historians.
Notes to Pages 490–504
11.
Morgenthau,
Morgenthau’s Story, 325.
12.
Hovannisian,
ed.,
The Armenian Genocide: Cultural and Ethical, 6–7.
13. They were also eager to “Turkify” the state, which accounts for the successive anti- Kurdish campaigns of the CUP and Kemal during World War I and the 1920s and 1930s. These campaigns, though also guided by the lights of social or demographic engineering, fall outside the remit of this book. But, in brief: hard on the heels of the vital Kurdish assistance rendered to the government in destroying the Armenians, the Turks in 1916–1918 deported hundreds of thousands of Kurds from eastern to central and western Anatolia. Turkification was the goal, as defined in the secret statutes or bylaws of the Directorate for the Settlement of Tribes and Refugees, headed by Şükrü Kaya Bey. The directorate orchestrated the deportations. Many Kurdish deportees died on the roads or were slaughtered by Turkish troops and police. But here, unlike with the Armenians, the main aim was to assimilate— Turkify— rather than exterminate, though killing Kurds was also acceptable. As Enver reportedly told a session of the CUP central committee after the loss at Sarıkamış, “Though we are outwardly defeated . . . in actuality we are triumphal because we left the dead bodies of several tens of thousands young Kurds on the roads from the forests of Sarikamish to Erzurum.” But the westward transplantation of the Kurds was far more difficult than the destruction of the Armenians, which explains why it was drawn out and only partially successful. Firstly, the Turks didn’t enjoy the ser vices of Kurdish helpers, as they had with the Armenians. Secondly, the Kurds were by and large warlike and well- armed (Baibourtian, The Kurds, 214–216). Moreover, being largely nomads, the Kurdish tribesmen proved more resilient and were able, in many cases, to make their way back to the Kurdish heartland. See also Üngör, Making of Modern Turkey, 107–169.
14. Q. in Dobkin, Smyrna 1922, 34.
15.
Morgenthau,
Morgenthau’s Story, 342.
16. Q. in Akçam, Shameful Act, 123.
17. Cheikh Ziaddin, Abdullah and Hajji Mehmed, to ?, 1 February 1920, USNA RG 84, Turkey (Constantinople), Vol. 419.
18. Horton to SecState, 26 September 1922, USNA RG 59, 867.4016, Roll 47.
19. Q. in Suny, They Can Live in the Desert, 215.
20. Q. by Suny, They Can Live in the Desert, 134.
21. Q. in Dobkin, Smyrna 1922, 46.
22.
Morgenthau,
Morgenthau’s Story, 290. See also 276–286.
23. Quoted in Shaw, Empire to Republic, vol. 2, 399–400.
24.
Kevorkian,
Armenian Genocide, 1–2 and 810.
25.
Suny,
They Can Live in the Desert, xiv–xv.
26.
Suny,
They Can Live in the Desert, 52, 56–57.
27.
See
Ihrig,
Atatürk, especially 81–87, 206–208, 223–225.
28.
Lower,
Hitler’s Furies, 37.
29. For a partial comparison between German and Turkish looting policies see Kurt, “ Legal and Official Plunder.”
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