The Thirty-Year Genocide

by Benny Morris

  379

  Muhacirs

  Ryan, Andrew, 295

  Rendel, George, 383, 441, 456, 467, 469, 473,

  481

  Sabit Cemal Sağırzade, 190–91, 197–98

  Reparative efforts of Allies, 270

  Saint Jean de Maurienne Agreement, 429

  Reşid Afik Pasha, 173–74

  Şakir, Bahaettin, 7–8, 147–48, 175–76, 182, 249,

  Reşid Bey, Çerkes, 172, 198, 199–200, 201, 203,

  251, 560n2

  204, 206, 254

  Salonica, refugees in, 466, 472

  Restitution of property of deportees, 297, 302–3,

  Samih Bey, 223

  305, 306, 307–8, 327, 396

  Samsun: attacks on Greeks in, 399; deportations

  Return: of Armenian deportees, 270, 275, 298,

  from and massacres in, 410–11; refugees in,

  300–311, 304; of Greek deportees, 300, 307,

  457–58, 462, 463, 464; return of women to,

  383, 393–97; massacres as inhibiting, 309

  416

  Revenge as rationale for genocide, 498

  Sanussi, Ahmed Sharif as- , 342, 349

  Richards, William Shortland, 127

  Sarikamiş, Armenians in, as blamed for defeat,

  Richmond, Clara, 225

  156–57, 249

  Rifat Bey, 305

  Sason, massacre in, 54–67

  Riggs, Ernest, 190, 191, 192, 195

  Schellendorf, Fritz Bronsart von, 177

  Riggs, Henry, 315

  Scheubner- Richter, Max Erwin von, 162,

  Riggs, Mary, 193

  176–77, 178

  Ringland, Arthur, 465

  Scorched- earth tactics, 441–42, 476, 482

  Riza Bey, Ali, 224, 348

  Semoukhine, Stepan, 222

  Robinson, Emily, 362

  Serengulian, Vartkes, 146, 492

  Rogan, Eugene, 137–38

  Şevket Bey, Mustafa, 208

  Rohner, Beatrice, 234–35, 236, 241, 260

  Shadvorean, Mesak, 45–46

  Rössler, Walter, 166, 167, 168, 232, 234, 239

  Shasheknaya, Ismael, 379

  Rumbold, Horace: on abductions, 311–12; on

  Shattuck, Corinna, 86–87, 88, 89, 90, 128

  Allied- Kemalist conference, 360; on Allies,

  Shaw, Stanford, From Empire to Republic,

  285; on armistice, 270–71; on Bonar Law, 290;

  574n270, 598n173, 605n339, 607n383

  deportations and, 416, 417, 419; on

  Shepard, Fred Douglas, 93, 94

  evacuations, 367; on expulsions, 457; on

  Shipley, Hammond Smith, 62–63, 64

  France and Nationalist negotiations, 283–84;

  Silvan, massacre in, 92

  on Greek invasion of Smyrna, 272; on Kemal,

  Sis, French evacuation of, 350

  278–79, 300; on Nationalists, 286, 291; on

  Siuni, Papken, 104, 110

  National Pact, 276–77; on population

  Sivas: convoys passing through, 421–22, 425;

  exchange, 469; on recovery efforts, 313; on

  deportations from, 186–90

  scorched- earth tactics, 476; on Smyrna, 447,

  Slavery, 258, 312, 466

  454; on Turkish atrocities, 427

  Smith, Floyd, 200

  Rural society: impoverishment of, 45–46; refugees

  Smyrna (Izmir): cession of, to Greece, 282;

  from, in Van town, 103; as under siege, 33–39;

  deportations from, 213, 448–49; exodus of

  weakening of, 24–25

  Christians from, 450–55; fire in, 441–47;

  Rusinian, Nahapet, 31, 32

  Greek occupation of, 267–68, 271, 272, 320,

  Index

  391, 394, 429–34; history and population of,

  Terrell, Alexander Watkins: on casualties, 132;

  429; massacres in, 4–5, 436–41, 443–44; in

  Jewett and, 52; on massacres, 61, 69, 71; on

  nineteenth century, 21–24; refugees in, 472;

  Ottoman Bank Affair, 105, 106, 107; on

  Turkish reconquest of, 434, 435–41

  reforms, 70

  Softas, 47, 68, 69, 105, 111, 117

  Tevfik Pasha, 56, 57

  Spadaro, Alfred, 47

  Tevfik Pasha, Ahmet, 111, 286, 319

  Special Organ ization: in Ankara, 221; in

  Third Army, 156, 159, 179–80

  Diyarbekir, 200; massacres and, 178–79;

  Thompson, Ethel, 424

  origins of, 139; rec ords of, 7; restructuring of,

  Thoumaian, Artin, 126

  246; role of, 251; trial of officials of, 319.

  Tokat: deportations from, 189; pogrom in, 96,

  See also Nâzim Bey, Selanikli Mehmet; Şakir,

  133–34

  Bahaettin

  Topalian, Eftimia, 312

  State plan, genocidal program as, 1–3, 173–74,

  Torosyan, Sarkis, 158

  244–45, 253–55

  Toynbee, Arnold, 331, 406–7, 430, 432, 468,

  Stergiadis, Aristeidis, 433–34, 435, 475

  475, 479, 480–81

  Straits, 18, 266, 282, 285–86, 291–92

  Toynbee, Rosalind, 331–32, 479–81

  Suat Bey, Ali, 236, 238

  Trabzon: deportations from, 181–86, 388,

  Sultanate, dissolution of, 286

  419–21; Greeks in, 76; massacre in, 73–77

  Suny, Ronald Grigor, 147, 157

  Treaty of Berlin, 18–19, 38, 39–40, 46–47

  Sureyya Bey, 56

  Treaty of Lausanne, 286–88, 287, 290–92, 317,

  Survivors of massacres: aid for, 84; in Diyarbekir,

  370, 456, 471

  92; in Maraş, 78–79; plunders of churches

  Treaty of Sèvres, 281–83, 286, 288, 291, 352,

  reported by, 117–18; in Sason, 65–66; on train

  353, 359, 468

  to Anatolia, 270; in Urfa, 89

  Turkey: Allied position in, 454–55; Allied troops

  Sykes, Mark, 294–95, 297, 301–2, 332

  in, 266–69; Britain and, 277–79, 293–300;

  Sykes- Picot agreement of 1916, 321, 323, 324,

  declared as indivisible whole, 276; denial of

  353

  guilt in, 505, 506; foreign diplomatic opinion

  Syria: Armenian refugees in, 196; Christian

  toward, 9; France and, 279–80, 288–89; map

  communities in, 494–95; Deir Zor camp, 212,

  of, 18; population- exchange agreement

  236–43; French troops in, 323, 347, 358;

  between Greece and, 467–72, 474; population

  migration to, 370–71; Rās al- ’Ayn camp,

  of, 486–88, 620n1; xenophobia in, 269, 270,

  237–38. See also Aleppo vilayet

  469. See also And specific cities; And specific

  Syriacs. See Assyrians (Syriacs, Chaldeans,

  provinces; Ottoman Empire

  Nestorians)

  Turkish Secret Defense Committees, 113

  Tahargian, Sophia, 256

  Under ground network in Aleppo, 235, 241

  Tahsin Bey (Erzurum), 176, 179

  Üngör, Uğur Ümit, 203–4

  Tahsin Pasha (Sason), 55–56, 60, 64

  United States: Armenian emigration to, 362; as

  Talât, Mehmed: assassination of, 273, 560n2;

  on isolationist trajectory, 287–88; tobacco

  Assyrians and, 375, 376–77; Balkan Wars and,

  firms of, 415, 439, 609n442

  147; on Christians, 495; on conversions,

  Urban minority communities, 21–24

  259–60; coup led by, 138; on deportations,

  Urban pogroms, 97–98

  172–73, 214, 217, 228, 240; documents

  Urfa: Armenian militiamen
in, 207; arrival of

  destroyed by, 8; fear of international

  deportees in, 205; Assyrians of, 371–72;

  condemnation of, 248; on Greeks, 151;

  British occupation of, 299; deportations from,

  Jackson and, 238; on massacres, 172, 492; on

  205–9; French occupation of and battle for,

  orphans, 260–61; threat to destroy Smyrna by,

  348–49; massacres in, 85–90

  442; on unburied bodies, 197; Zeytun and,

  Urmia province, 374–76, 377–79

  167, 169

  Ussher, Elizabeth, 161, 162, 164

  Tarsus, French takeover of, 324–25

  Tehcir (Deportation) Law, 171–72, 265

  Van, Armenian rebellions in, 101–4, 160–64

  Ternon, Yves, 242

  Van der Zee, W. H., 151

  Index

  Vartabed, Hovhan, 361

  expulsions and, 458; as married to Muslim

  Vehib Pasha, 159, 204

  men, 255, 256–57, 259–60, 499–500; as

  Venizelos, Eleftherios, 268, 284, 286, 468, 469

  prostitutes, 569n131; recovery of, 311–17; as

  Vickery, Charles, 306

  sold for sex, 257–58; in Trabzon, 419–20;

  Victoria (queen), petition to, 63

  Turkish, 88, 93–94. See also Rapes

  Vio lence: by Anatolian Greeks, 385; anti- French

  Woodward, Garnet, 349

  and anti- Armenian, 324; by Armenians, 329–32,

  World War I (WWI): Adana in, 227; Armistice of

  489; blame for, 269–70, 276; central government

  Mudros, 242, 265–71; conscription for,

  control over, 107, 112–14; between locals and

  157–58, 166; deportations of Greeks during,

  returnees, 305, 307–8; religious character of,

  386–93; Diyarbekir in, 199; jihad invoked in,

  118; re sis tance to recovery of women and

  495; origins of, 141–42; Ottoman entry into,

  children and, 314–15. See also Anti- Armenian

  155–56; Ottoman Greeks during, 385–93.

  campaign of 1919; Rapes; War crimes

  See also Allies; Gallipoli campaign; Paris Peace

  Conference; Treaty of Sèvres

  Wangenheim, Hans Freiherr von, 146, 151, 158,

  Wright, G. Henry, 152

  167, 175, 176

  War crimes: as “crimes against humanity,” 197,

  Xenophobia in Turkey, 269, 270, 469

  248, 318; trials for, 11, 317–21

  Ward, Mark, 419, 424–27

  Yalova- Gemlik area, Greek atrocities in, 477–80,

  War of In de pen dence, 267–69, 289

  483

  Waugh, Telford, 125, 132

  Yantis, E. M., 440–41

  Webb, Richard, 296, 302, 320, 393

  Yarrow, Ernest, 161, 164

  Werfel, Franz, Forty Days of Musa Dag, 209

  Yazidis, 374

  Western provinces: Ankara, 221–22; Bursa,

  Yerevan, Armenian Republic at, 267, 276, 283,

  219–20; Christian exodus from, 450–55;

  287, 289, 308

  deportations in, 212–14, 253, 391–92; Edirne,

  Young Turks. See CUP (Committee of Union and

  214–17; Greeks in, 268; Konya, 218, 220,

  Pro gress)

  222–24; massacres in, 216; overview of, 212.

  Yowell, F. D., 424–25, 426–27

  See also Izmit; Kayseri

  Yozgat, massacre in, 50–52, 54

  White, George E., 187, 412

  Williams, W. H., 102, 103

  Zeki, Salih, 238, 239–40, 241–43

  Willson, Digby, 362

  Zeki Pasha, 56, 57, 60, 102

  Wilson, Marion, 340

  Zeytun, 165; Armenian rebellion in, 98–101;

  Wilson, Woodrow, 268, 288

  battle for, 358; deportations from, 141,

  Witnesses to Turkish atrocities, 63–64, 407–8

  167–70; rebellions in, 165–67

  Women: abductions of, 91, 92, 97, 122–25,

  Zihni Bey, Zekeriya, 215, 216

  177–78, 256, 312, 315, 444, 498–99; as

  Zollinger, Emil, 236

  Armenian rebels, 99; from Bafra, 408–9;

  Zürcher, Erik, 158, 250

  Document Outline

  Contents

  Glossary

  Place Names

  Introduction

  I Abdülhamid II 1 Nationalist Awakenings in the Nineteenth-Century Ottoman Empire

  2 The Massacres of 1894–1896

  II The Young Turks 3 A More Turkish Empire

  4 The Eastern River

  5 The Western River, and Downstream

  6 A Policy of Genocide

  III Mustafa Kemal and the Nationalists 7 Historical Background, 1918–1924

  8 Turks and Armenians, 1919–1924

  9 Turks and Greeks, 1919–1924

  Conclusion

  Abbreviations

  Notes

  Bibliography

  Acknowledgments

  Illustration Credits

  Index