by Lucy Riall
67. Weber, Economy and society, pp. 246–54.
68. Kershaw, The ‘Hitler myth’, pp. 4, 253; R. Tucker, Stalin in power, New York, 1992, p. 171; J. Gottlieb, ‘The marketing of megalomania: celebrity, consumption and the development of political technology in the British Union of Fascists’, Journal of Contemporary History, 41/1, 2006, pp. 35–55.
69. See, by way of contrast, the comments of Nell Painter that the nineteenth-century American preacher and feminist, Sojourner Truth, ‘remains more sign than lived existence … like other invented greats, Truth is consumed as a signifier and beloved for what we need her to have said.’ N. W. Painter, ‘Representing Truth: Sojourner Truth's knowing and becoming known’, Journal of American History, 81/2, 1994, p. 480.
70. G. Eley, ‘Nations, publics, and political cultures: placing Habermas in the nineteenth century’, in C. Calhoun (ed.), Habermas and the public sphere, Boston, MA, 1994, pp. 289–339.
71. J. Smith Allen, Popular French romanticism. Authors, readers and books in the nineteenth century, Syracuse, NY, 1981, pp. 6–12.
72. This point is also recognised by Schwegman, ‘In love with Garibaldi’, pp. 370–2.
Chapter 1: Nation and Risorgimento
1. 22 Oct. 1843, in Scritti, 24, p. 316. Mazzini was referring specifically to an argument between Cuneo, Garibaldi and another ‘Young Italian’, Rossetti, which had caused temporarily what Mazzini called ‘a kind of separation’ between the two friends.
2. On the Italian secret societies, see A. Lehning, ‘Buonarotti and his international secret societies’, International Review of Social History, 1, 1956, pp. 112–40; R. J. Rath, ‘The Carbonary: their origins, initiation rites and aims’, American Historical Review, 69, 1964, pp. 353–70. On Mazzini's involvement with the Carbonari see E. Hales, Mazzini and the secret societies: the making of a myth, London, 1956.
3. F. della Peruta, ‘Mazzini della letteratura militante all'impegno politico’, Studi Storici, 14/3, 1973, p. 546.
4. On SaintSimon, see J. Hayward, After the French Revolution. Six critics of democracy and nationalism, London, 1991, pp. 65–100.
5. Quoted in R. Sarti, Mazzini: a life for the religion of politics, Westport, CT, 1997, p. 60. For Mazzini and Saint-Simonianism, see ibid., pp. 58–60.
6. 16 Dec. 1846, to Carlo Fenzi, in Scritti, 30, p. 308.
7. F. della Peruta, Mazzini e i rivoluzionari italiani. Il ‘partitio d'azione’ 1830–1845, Milan, 1974, p. 70.
8. Sarti, Mazzini, p. 60.
9. On Buonarotti and conspiracy, see E. L. Eisenstein, The first professional revolutionary: Filippo Michele Buonarotti (1761–1837), Cambridge, MA, 1959, and more generally J. M. Roberts, The mythology of the secret societies, New York, 1972.
10. Quoted in Della Peruta, ‘Mazzini’, pp. 508, 552; the hero in Italian political culture is discussed in more detail below, pp. 59–67.
11. Mazzini was strongly influenced by the pamphlet published in 1830 by the Piedmontese exile Carlo Bianco di Saint Jorioz, Della guerra nazionale d'insurrezione per bande, applicata all'Italia. For a discussion and the text, see F. della Peruta (ed.), Democratici, premazziniani e dissidenti, Turin, 1979; on Mazzini, V. Parmentola, ‘Carlo Bianco, Giuseppe Mazzini e la teoria dell'insurrezione’, Bollettino della Domus Mazziniana, 2, 1959, pp. 5–40.
12. Sarti, Mazzini, p. 54.
13. Extracts in A. M. Banti, Il Risorgimento italiano, Rome and Bari, 2004, pp. 189–92.
14. E. Gentile, The sacralisation of politics in fascist Italy, Cambridge, MA, 1996, p. 4.
15. There is a substantial literature on this subject: on the ‘ethnic’ and historical origins of nations, see A. D. Smith, Nationalism and modernism, London, 1998, and A. Hastings, The construction of nationhood: ethnicity, religion and nationalism, Cambridge, 1997; on nationalism and modernisation, E. Gellner, Nations and nationalism, Oxford, 1983; and on the ‘invention’ of nations, see J. Breuilly, Nationalism and the state, Manchester, 1993 edn; B. Anderson, Imagined communities. Reflections on the origins and spread of nationalism, London, 1991 edn; and E. Hobsbawm, Nations and nationalism since 1780, Cambridge, 1990.
16. A. M. Banti, La nazione del Risorgimento. Parentela, santità e onore alle origini dell'Italia unita, Turin, 2000, p. 150. Similar points are made by A. Lyttelton, ‘Creating a national past: history, myth and image in the Risorgimento’, in A. R. Ascoli and K. von Henneberg (eds), Making and remaking Italy: the cultivation of national identity around the Risorgimento, Oxford, 2001, esp. pp. 27–9.
17. See e.g. F. Venturi, Settecento riformatore. I. Da Muratori a Beccaria, Turin, 1969; also D. Carpinetto and G. Ricuperati, Italy in the age of reason, 1685–1789, London, 1987, p. 89; and S. J. Woolf, A history of Italy 1700–1860, London, 1979, pp. 75–80.
18. R. Grew, ‘Culture and society, 1796–1896’, in J. A. Davis (ed.), Italy in the nineteenth century, Oxford, 2000, p. 206.
19. Perhaps the best short summaries of the impact of the French on Italy are A. Grab, Napoleon and the transformation of Europe, London, 2003, pp. 152–75 (which despite its title has useful information on the revolutionary period as well), and idem, ‘From the French Revolution to Napoleon’, in Davis (ed.), Italy in the nineteenth century, pp. 25–50. See equally J. A. Davis, Naples and Napoleon, Oxford, 2006.
20. Grew, ‘Culture and society’, pp. 207–10.
21. Banti, La nazione, pp. 3–29.
22. There was remarkable continuity in those aspects of the revolutionary and Napoleonic traditions which modernised government administrations and strengthened the power of the state, as well as a fairly ambivalent attitude towards restoring the ancien régime privileges of Church and nobility. For a general discussion, see D. Laven and L. Riall, ‘Restoration government and the legacy of Napoleon’, in Laven and Riall (eds), Napoleon's legacy. Problems of government in Restoration Europe, Oxford, 2000, pp. 1–26; and on the specific policies of Restoration Italy, see D. Laven, ‘The age of Restoration’, in Davis (ed.), Italy in the nineteenth century, pp. 51–73.
23. For the text of De Staël's essay and the debate between ‘classicists’ and ‘romantics’ which ensued, see E. Bellorini (ed.), Discussioni e polemiche sul romanticismo (1816–1826), Bari, 1943.
24. E. Raimondi, Romanticismo italiano e romanticismo europeo, Milan, 1997; C. Springer, The marble wilderness: ruins and representation in Italian romanticism, Cambridge, 1997; see also Grew, ‘Culture and society’, pp. 211–15.
25. Banti, La nazione, p. 29.
26. On the Italian version of the historical novel, see S. Pinto (ed.), Romanticismo storico, Florence, 1974; for a more general discussion, see B. Hamnett, ‘Fictitious histories: the dilemma of fact and imagination in the nineteenth-century historical novel’, European History Quarterly, 36/1, 2006, pp. 31–60.
27. Quoted in Banti, La nazione, p. 69. Lyttelton notes that L'assedio di Firenze was in fact considered too inflammatory to be published in Italy when it first appeared in 1836: ‘Creating a national past’, p. 59.
28. Ibid., pp. 52–8.
29. M. Praz, The romantic agony, London, 1933, esp. pp. 58–69. See also P. Ginsborg, ‘Il mito del Risorgimento nel mondo britannico: “la vera poesia della politica”’, in Il mito del Risorgimento nell'Italia unita, Milan, 1995, pp. 386–7.
30. N. Frye, The anatomy of criticism, Princeton, NJ, 1957, pp. 33–4.
31. G. Mosse, The image of man. The creation of modern masculinity, New York, 1996, p. 18.
32. G. Dawson, Soldier heroes. British adventure, empire and the imagining of masculinities, London, 1994, pp. 69–74.
33. Banti, La nazione, p. 123.
34. On both these novels, see ibid., pp. 93–6.
35. For a discussion of images of war in Scott's poetry, see S. Bainbridge, British poetry and the revolutionary and Napoleonic wars. Visions of conflict, Oxford, 2003, esp. pp. 120–47, 159–70.
36. I. Porciani, ‘Der Krieg als ambivalenter italienischer Gründungsmythos – Siege und Niederlagen’, in N. Buschmann and D. L
angewiesche (eds), Der Krieg in den Gründungsmythen europäischer Nationen und der USA, Frankfurt and New York, 2003, pp. 193–212.
37. D. Laven, ‘Machiavelli, italianità and the French invasion of 1494’, in D. Abulafia (ed.), The French descent into Renaissance Italy, 1494–95. Antecedents and effects, Aldershot, 1995, pp. 355–69. I discuss this theme in ‘Eroi maschili, virilità e forme della guerra’, in A. M. Banti and P. Ginsborg (eds), Il Risorgimento, Turin, forthcoming.
38. This issue is discussed in more detail below, Chapter 5, pp. 135–6.
39. Lyttelton, ‘Creating a national past’, p. 31.
40. D. Laven, ‘Italy: The idea of the nation in the Risorgimento and liberal era’, in T. Baycroft and M. Hewitson (eds), What is a nation? Europe 1789–1914, Oxford, 2006, p. 269.
41. Banti, La nazione, p. 150.
42. Lyttelton, ‘Creating a national past’, p. 42.
43. Della Peruta, ‘Mazzini’, p. 507.
44. See G. Pirodda, ‘Giuseppe Mazzini e il romanticismo democratico’, in La letteratura italiana. Stori e testi, 7, pt. 1, Bari, 1970–80, esp. pp. 252–9.
45. A. Galante Garrone, ‘I giornali della Restaurazione’, in idem and F. della Peruta, La stampa italiana del Risorgimento, Bari, 1976, p. 141.
46. Sarti, Mazzini, p. 54; Della Peruta, ‘Mazzini’, p. 507.
47. Galante Garrone, ‘I giornali della Restaurazione’, p. 156.
48. Ibid., pp. 157–64.
49. Ibid., p. 156.
50. Scritti, 34, p. 29 (the whole article is at pp. 27–48, and was first published in the London radical weekly, the People's Journal, in 1846).
51. S. Hazareesingh, ‘Memory and political imagination. The legend of Napoleon revisited’, French History, 18/4, 2004, p. 476.
52. D. Mack Smith, Mazzini, London, 1994, pp. 31, 40, 65.
53. D. Laven, ‘Mazzini, Mazzinian conspiracy and British politics in the 1850s’, Bollettino Storico Mantovano, nuova serie, 2, 2003, pp. 267–82.
54. Sarti, Mazzini, p. 3; Mack Smith, Mazzini, p. 2.
Chapter 2: In Search of Garibaldi
1. On Mazzini's experiences in England before the revolutions of 1848, see E. Morelli, L'Inghilterra di Mazzini, Rome, 1965; R. Sarti, Mazzini. A life for the religion of politics, Westport, CT, 1997, pp. 95–126; D. Mack Smith, Mazzini, London, 1994, pp. 20–48.
2. For the disagreement between Mazzini and Fabrizi, see F. della Peruta, ‘Le teorie militari della democrazia risorgimentale’, in F. Mazzonis (ed.), Garibaldi condottiero. Storia, teoria, prassi, Milan, 1984, pp. 67–9.
3. See M. Finelli, ‘Il prezioso elemento’. Giuseppe Mazzini e gli emigrati italiani nell'esperienza della Scuola Italiana di Londra, Verucchio, 1999.
4. Cited in Mack Smith, Mazzini, p. 41.
5. See below, pp. 139–46.
6. ‘Byron et Goethe’, Scritti, 21, pp. 233–4.
7. Quoted in Sarti, Mazzini, p. 112.
8. Mack Smith, Mazzini, pp. 42–3.
9. E. Yeo, ‘Some practices and problems of Chartist democracy’, in J. Epstein and D. Thompson (eds), The Chartist experience: studies in working-class radicalism and culture, 1830–60, London, 1982, pp. 345–80.
10. I. Haywood, The revolution in popular literature. Print, politics and the people, 1790–1860, Cambridge, 2004, pp. 139–61.
11. J. Vernon, Politics and the people: a study in English political culture, c.1815–1867, Cambridge, 1993, p. 258; the whole chapter, pp. 251–91, is a useful analysis of the creation of British radical heroes (including Garibaldi). For a discussion of the British popular radical tradition over a longer timespan, see J. Brewer, Party ideology and popular politics at the accession of George III, Cambridge, 1976; J. Belchem, Orator Hunt. Henry Hunt and English working-class radicalism, Oxford, 1985, and R. McWilliam, Popular politics in nineteenth-century England, London, 1998; and on the influence of British thought on Mazzini, G. Monsagrati, ‘Garibaldi e il culto vittoriano dell'eroe’, Studi Storici, 42/1, 2001, pp. 165–80.
12. J. Plunkett, Queen Victoria. First media monarch, Oxford, 2003.
13. On European exiles and their impact, see S. Freitag (ed.), Exiles from European revolutions. Refugees in mid-Victorian England, Oxford, 2003; see also M. Isabella, ‘Exile and nationalism: the case of the Risorgimento’, European History Quarterly, 36/4, 2006, pp 493–520.
14. See G. Claeys, ‘Mazzini, Kossuth and British radicalism, 1848–1854’, Journal of British Studies, 28/2, 1989, pp. 225–61.
15. Sarti, Mazzini, p. 116; idem, ‘La democrazia radicale: uno sguardo reciproco tra Stati Uniti e Italia’, in M. Ridolfi (ed.), La democrazia radicale nell'ottocento europeo, Milan, 2005, pp. 140–4.
16. 24 Dec. 1846, to Enrico Mayer, in Mazzini, Scritti, 30, p. 321.
17. On Italian communities in the Americas during this period, see the general discussion in D. Gabaccia, Italy's many diasporas, London, 2000, esp. pp. 45–52, and M. Sanfilippo, ‘Nationalisme, “italianité” et émigration aux Amériques (1830–1990)’, European Review of History, 2, 1995, pp. 177–91. Before the arrival of Mazzinian ideas with the emigrations of 1833–4, many Italian political exiles had made their home in Latin America. A. Scirocco, Garibaldi. Battaglie, amori, ideali di un cittadino del mondo, Rome and Bari, 2001, pp. 29–30.
18. M. A. de Marco, Bartolomé Mitre, Buenos Aires, 1998; W. H. Katra, The Argentine generation of 1837: Echeverría, Alberdi, Sarmiento, Mitre, London, 1996; N. Shumway, The invention of Argentina, Berkeley, CA, 1991. More generally on the development of Argentine oppositional culture in this period, see C. A. Román, ‘Caricatura y politica en El Grito Argentino (1839) y #ibMuera Rosas! (1841–1842)’, and E. J. Palti, ‘Rosas como enigma. La génesis de la fórmula “civilización y barbarie”,’ both in G. Batticuore, K. Gallo, J. Myers (eds), Resonancias románticas. Ensayos sobre historia de la cultura argentina (1820–1890), Buenos Aires, 2005, pp. 49–84.
19. See S. Candido, ‘L'azione mazziniana in Brasile ed il giornale “La Giovine Italia” di Rio de Janeiro (1836) attraverso documenti inediti o poco noti’, Bollettino della Domus Mazziniana, 14/2, 1968, pp. 3–66; idem, ‘La “Giovine Italia” a Montevideo (1836–1842). Contributo alla storia mazziniana nelle Americhe’, ibid., 21/1, 1975, pp. 53–76; idem, La rivoluzione riograndese nel carteggio inedito di due giornalisti mazziniani: Luigi Rossetti e G.B. Cuneo (1837–1840). Contributo alla storia del giornalismo politico di ispirazione italiana nei paesi latinoamericani, Florence, 1973.
20. T. Olivari, ‘I libri di Garibaldi’, Storia e Futuro, 1, 2002, pp. 1–16, see www.storiaefuturo.com.
21. Both Mazzini and the carbonari were also influenced by Saint-Simon and the romantic socialists. For recent reassessments of the Saint-Simonians and romantic socialism, see L. Sharp, ‘Metempsychosis and social reform: the individual and the collective in romantic socialism’, French Historical Studies, 27/2, 2004, pp. 349–79; P. Pilbeam, ‘Dream worlds? Religion and the early socialists in France’, Historical Journal, 43/2, 2000, pp. 499–516; J. Beecher, Charles Fourier, Berkeley, CA, 1986, pp. 409–30; E. Berenson, Populist religion and leftwing politics in France, 1830–52, Princeton, NJ, 1984.
22. According to two letters which Garibaldi wrote from Rio in January 1836: to Canessa on 25 Jan. and to Mazzini on 27 Jan. In Epistolario, 1, pp. 6–10.
23. 27 Dec. 1836, to Cuneo, ibid., p. 12.
24. There is a substantial literature on Garibaldi as a ‘corsair’. See in particular S. Candido, Giuseppe Garibaldi. Corsaro riograndese (1837–1838), Rome, 1964. Also important is R. Ugolini, Garibaldi. Genesi di un mito, Rome, 1982, pp. 93–124, while Scirocco, Garibaldi, pp. 28–74 and J. Ridley, Garibaldi, London, 1974, pp. 47–104 have useful accounts both of Garibaldi's activities and of the broader context of the war between Brazil and the fledgling republic of Rio Grande do Sul.
25. Ibid., p. 133.
26. D. McLean, ‘Garibaldi in Uruguay: a reputation reconsidered’, English Historical Review, 113, April 1998, pp. 351–5.
27. J. Lynch, A
rgentine caudillo. Juan Manuel de Rosas, Wilmington, DE, 2001, pp. 83–6.
28. Ridley, Garibaldi, pp. 109, 127, 133, 140–1, 181, 201.
29. A. Saldías, Historia de la confederacíon Argentina, 9 vols, Buenos Aires, 1929, 7, pp. 20–2.
30. McLean, ‘Garibaldi’, p. 351.
31. 15 March 1846.
32. On Garibaldi in Uruguay, see McLean, ‘Garibaldi’; also Ridley, Garibaldi, pp. 94–206; Ugolini, Garibaldi, pp. 125–41; Scirocco, Garibaldi, pp. 83–124; and S. Candido, Giuseppe Garibaldi nel Rio della Plata, 1841–1848, Florence, 1972.
33. A. Dumas, Montevideo ou une nouvelle Troie, Paris, 1850; S. E. Pereda, Garibaldi en el Uruguay, 3 vols, Montevideo, 1914–16; idem, Los extranjeros en la guerra grande, Montevideo, 1904. On the myth of Garibaldi in Brazil, see A. Boldrini, ‘Il mito di Garibaldi nella letteratura del Rio Grande do Sul’, Quaderni Storiografici dell'Istituto internazionale di studi Giuseppe Garibaldi, 8, 1993, pp. 3–25.
34. Quoted in McLean, ‘Garibaldi’, pp. 360–6.
35. Ridley, Garibaldi, pp. 47–9.
36. On Sarmiento: T. Halperín Donghi et al. (eds), Sarmiento. Author of a nation, Berkeley, CA, 1994.
37. There is a large hagiographic literature on Anita, about whom comparatively little is known. For a recent biography, see A. Valerio, Anita Garibaldi. A biography, Westport, CT, 2001.
38. Ridley, Garibaldi, pp. 139, 159.
39. On Zambeccari, see the special issue ‘Tra il Reno e la Plata: la vita di Livio Zambeccari studioso e rivoluzionario’, M. Gavelli, F. Tarozzi and R. Vecchi (eds), Bollettino del Museo del Risorgimento, 46, 2001.
40. D. Mack Smith, Garibaldi: A great life in brief, London, 1957, p. 19.
41. 9 March 1851, in Epistolario, 3, pp. 38–9; McLean, ‘Garibaldi’, p. 366.
42. The quotation is from D. F. Sarmiento, Facundo, La Plata, 1938, p. 59, quoted in J. Lynch, Caudillos in Spanish America, 1800–1850, Oxford, 1992, p. 412. For the typology of the gaucho see ibid., pp. 10–13.
