by Lucy Riall
43. G. Guerzoni, Garibaldi, Florence, 1882, 1, pp. 211–13. The quotations are translated in D. Mack Smith (ed.) Garibaldi, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1960, p. 95.
44. It is not known when, or whether or not, Anita's first husband had died, or why the couple decided to get married when they did. Ridley, Garibaldi, pp. 106–8.
45. For a discussion, see A. Filippi, ‘Simón Bolívar e la nascita delle nuove repubbliche ispanoamericane nel pensiero politico italiano dell'Ottocento’, Pensiero Politico, 18, 1985, pp. 182–207; see also Lynch, Caudillos, pp. 6–9.
46. Gaucho culture has also been used as a social and cultural explanation for the establishment of the ferocious dictatorships established by Rosas and others. See Lynch, Caudillos, pp. 412–16.
47. Idem, Argentine caudillo, pp. 45, 83. For a discussion of the Rosas ‘style’ and its purpose, see ibid., pp. 44–52.
48. G. Monsagrati, ‘Garibaldi’, in Dizionario biografico degli Italiani, 52, Rome, 1999, pp. 317–19.
49. 18 Oct. 1842, in Epistolario, 1, p. 43.
50. On the concept of the ‘soldier hero’ in British literature, see G. Dawson, Soldier heroes. British adventure, empire and the imagining of nationalism, London, 1994.
51. C. Jean, ‘Garibaldi e il volontariato nel Risorgimento’, Rassegna Storica del Risorgimento, 69/4, 1982, pp. 399–419.
52. According to Lord Howden, who knew Garibaldi in Montevideo. Quoted in Mack Smith (ed.), Garibaldi, p. 87. See also the comments of William Gore Ouseley, who knew Garibaldi during the same period, ibid., p. 93.
53. E. Feraboli, ‘Il primo esilio di Garibaldi in America, 1833–1848’, Rassegna Storica del Risorgimento, 19/2, 1932, p. 264.
54. H. F. Winnington-Ingram, Hearts of oak, London, 1889, p. 93.
55. Ibid.
56. Feraboli, ‘Il primo esilio’, pp. 264, 266.
57. In MRG, there are two paintings of Garibaldi from 1841 and 1842, and another, executed by Gaetano Gallino in Genoa in 1848.
58. From Gaçeta Mercantil 13 July 1843; British Packet and Argentine News 2 Jan. 1846, Ridley, Garibaldi, pp. 125, 148, 167, 180, 191, 217; Scirocco, Garibaldi, p. 126.
59. Ridley, Garibaldi, p. 167.
60. The Times, 1 Jan. 1845, ‘Seizure of the Argentine squadron’; Ridley, Garibaldi, p. 181.
61. The emphasis is Mazzini's, to Cuneo, on 20 Oct. 1846, in Scritti, 30, p. 235.
62. Both Cuneo's letter and Mazzini's reply (8 Aug. 1841) are in Scritti, 23, pp. 274–82.
63. To his mother, 4 Oct. 1842, ibid., pp. 290–1. Garibaldi is almost always referred to as coming from Genoa rather than Nice in this early correspondence.
64. On which see Saldías, Historia, 6, p. 18.
65. To his mother, 19 Nov. 1842, Scritti, 23, pp. 335.
66. 9 May 1845, ibid., 27, pp. 274–9.
67. 7 Oct. 1842, ibid., 23, p. 293.
68. 25 Nov. 1842.
69. 22 June 1845, Scritti, 28, p. 36; 23 Dec. 1845, ibid., p. 240.
70. ‘The Italian legion in the service of Montevideo’, The Times, 30 Jan. 1846; on his efforts to circulate the pamphlet in Europe, see Scirocco, Garibaldi, p. 130.
71. 2 Oct. 1846, Scritti, 30, p. 199.
72. The text of the letter is in Scritti e discorsi, 1, pp. 79–81.
73. 6 Oct. 1846, Scritti, 30, pp. 208–9.
74. On this period of Pius IX's Papacy, see O. Chadwick, A history of the Popes, 1830–1914, Oxford, 1998, pp. 61–77.
75. 20 Oct. 1846, Scritti, 30, pp. 238–9.
76. On Turchetti's speech, see the note to Mazzini's letter to Lamberti of 18 Oct. 1846, ibid., p. 231.
77. The book was published in Livorno (a town well known for its liberal leanings), in 1846. On Cesare de Laugier, see N. D. Vasoli, ‘Cesare de Laugier e la figura dell'eroe militare italiano tra l'età napoleonica e la prima guerra d'indipendenza’, in J. Joly (ed.), Mythes et figures de l'héroisme militare dans l'Italie du Risorgimento, Caen, 1982, pp. 37–49.
78. On the spread of publications and interest in Garibaldi see Scirocco, Garibaldi, p. 133.
79. F. de Boni, Così la penso. Cronaca, 1, Lugano, 1846, pp. 367, 369, 370 (the whole article was some twenty pages long, and is at pp. 365–84).
80. The text of the circular is in Feraboli, ‘Il primo esilio’, p. 270.
81. Ibid.
82. See the series of letters from Mazzini in November and December in Scritti, 30, pp. 272, 278, 312, 318–20, 279, 300, 308.
83. Scirocco, Garibaldi, p. 133.
84. Mack Smith, Mazzini, p. 157, describes Harro-Harring as ‘slightly unbalanced’. See also the exchange of letters between Cuneo and Mazzini in which Harro-Harring's name is mentioned as the contact, 8 Aug. 1841 and 18 March 1842, in Scritti, 23, pp. 277, 286–97.
85. P. Harro-Harring, Dolores. A historical novel. With an introduction to Mazzini, New York and London, 3rd edn, 1853, p. 95.
86. Ibid., pp. 100–2.
87. A. Galante Garrone, ‘I giornali della restaurazione’, in idem and F. della Peruta, La stampa italiana del Risorgimento, Bari, 1976, p. 233.
88. 13 April 1847, in Scritti, 30, p. 108.
89. Cuneo's account is in nos 9, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15 and 16, and reprinted in G. B. Cuneo, Biografia di Giuseppe Garibaldi, Rome, 1932 edn.
90. Ibid., pp. 72, 88.
91. Ibid., pp. 71–3, 81, 83, 85–8.
92. 6 May 1847, ‘The River Plate’.
93. L. Mariotti [pseud. of A. Gallenga], Latest news from Italy, London, 1847, pp. 13–14. On Gallenga's relations with Mazzini, see T. Cerruti, Antonio Gallenga. An Italian writer in Victorian England, Oxford, 1974, pp. 100–8.
94. A. Viarengo, ‘Mito e politica. Lorenzo Valerio e Giuseppe Garibaldi’, in A. Trova and G. Zichi (eds), Cattaneo e Garibaldi. Federalismo e Mezzogiorno, Rome, 2004, pp. 271–300; also Scirocco, Garibaldi, pp. 134–5.
95. Garibaldi's letter, dated 8 Aug. 1847, is in Epistolario, 1, pp. 239–41, and published in Concordia, 5 Jan. 1848.
96. G. Bertoldi, Alla legione Italiana in Montevideo ed al colonello Giuseppe Garibaldi, Lugano, 1847; on the pamphlet, see Valerio's letters to Giacomo Ciani, 14 April, 5 May, 12 May 1847, in L. Valerio, Carteggio (1825–1865), vol II (1842–47), ed. A. Viarengo, Turin, 1994, pp. 449, 458, 460.
97. La Patria, 28 Oct. 1847.
98. To Cuneo, 13 April 1847, Scritti, 32, p. 109; to Medici, 7 Nov. 1847, ibid., 33, p. 52. On the English-based National Fund, see Mack Smith, Mazzini, pp. 54–5.
99. Pereda, Garibaldi en el Uruguay, p. 15. For a discussion of this early portrait, see Garibaldi. Arte e storia, 2 vols, Florence, 1982, 1, p. 58.
100. In MCRR, and published ibid., cat. II, 28, p. 27.
101. 5 Feb. 1848.
102. To Lamberti, 29 Jan. 1847, Scritti, 32, pp. 31–2; to Foresti, ibid., 33, pp. 106–7.
103. 12 Oct. 1847, in Epistolario, 1, p. 245.
104. For details of Garibaldi's last year in Montevideo, see Ridley, Garibaldi, pp. 224–33, and McLean, ‘Garibaldi’, pp. 363–6.
105. On the concept of bricolage applied to the ‘opportunistic appropriations’ of Napoleonic propaganda, see C. Prendegast, Napoleon and history painting. Antoine-Jean Gros's La bataille d'Eylau, Oxford, 1997, pp. 8, 32, 78.
106. See A. Lyttelton, ‘Creating a national past: history, myth and image in the Risorgimento’, in A. Russell Ascoli and K. von Henneberg (eds), Making and remaking Italy. The cultivation of national identity around the Risorgimento, Oxford, 2001, pp. 33, 36.
Chapter 3: Revolution
1. L. Hunt, The family romance of the French Revolution, London, 1992, esp. pp. 17–52.
2. F. Furet, Interpreting the French Revolution, Cambridge, 1981, pp. 46–7.
3. M. Agulhon, Marianne into battle. Republican imagery and symbolism in France, 1789–1880, Cambridge, 1981, pp. 13, 16.
4. L. Hunt, Politics, culture, and class in the French Revolution, London, 1986, pp. 54, 72–83.
5. M. Ozouf, Festivals and the French Revolution, Cambridge, MA, 198
8, esp. pp. 8–11; see also foreword by Lynn Hunt, pp. xi–xii.
6. On Hercules, see Hunt, Politics, pp. 94–113; on the lion and on Marianne, see Agulhon, Marianne, pp. 14–32.
7. Furet, Interpreting, p. 48. See also the discussion in Hunt, Politics, esp. pp. 11–15, 24 and for a critical analysis, R. Spang, ‘Paradigm and paranoia: how modern is the French Revolution?’, American Historical Review, 108/1, 2003, pp. 119–47.
8. A. Soboul, ‘Religious feeling and popular cults during the French Revolution: “patriot saints” and martyrs for liberty’, in S. Wilson (ed.), Saints and their cults. Studies in religious sociology, folklore and history, Cambridge, 1983, pp. 217–32; A. Potts, ‘Images of ideal manhood in the French revolution’, History Workshop Journal, 30, 1990, pp. 1–21 (on Bara).
9. Soboul, ‘Religious feeling’, pp. 221–9, Ozouf, Festivals, pp. 262–7.
10. Potts, ‘Images’, esp. pp. 1–6. For a discussion of the relationship between the classical revival promoted by Johann Joachim Winckelmann and revolutionary art and politics see G. Mosse, The image of man. The creation of modern masculinity, Oxford, 1996, pp. 28–39; A. Potts, Flesh and the ideal. Winckelmann and the origins of art history, New Haven, CT, 1994; and H. Honour, Neo-classicism, London, 1977 edn, pp. 69–80.
11. T. Crow, ‘Patriotism and virtue: David to the Young Ingres’, in S. F. Eisenmann, Nineteenth-century art. A critical history, London, 2002 edn, pp. 18–23, 26–38.
12. D. Outram, The body and the French Revolution. Sex, class and political culture, New Haven, CT, and London, 1989, pp. 78–9.
13. Ibid., p. 82, author's emphasis. For a more detailed discussion see J. B. Landes, ‘Republican citizenship and heterosocial desire: concepts of masculinity in revolutionary France’, in S. Dudink et al. (eds), Masculinities in politics and war. Gendering modern history, Manchester, 2004.
14. Hunt, The family romance, p 81, see also pp. 28–42, 53–75.
15. On Napoleon and history, see A. Jourdan, Napoléon. Héros, imperator, mécène, Paris, 1998. See also the discussion of Napoleon's use of the arts in N. Petiteau, Napoléon, de la mythologie à l'histoire, Paris, 1999.
16. P. G. Dwyer, ‘Napoleon Bonaparte as hero and saviour’, French History, 18/4, 2004, p. 385.
17. Mosse, The image, p. 7.
18. Ibid., p. 51.
19. Ibid., p. 6.
20. G. Mosse, Nationalism and sexuality. Middle-class morality and sexual norms in modern Europe, Madison, WI, 1985, p. 16.
21. K. Hagemann, ‘A valorous Volk family: The nation, the military, and the gender order in Prussia in the time of the Anti-Napoleonic wars, 1806–15’, in I. Blom et al. (eds), Gendered nations. Nationalisms and gender order in the long nineteenth century, Oxford, 2000, pp. 186–91.
22. Mosse, Nationalism and sexuality, pp. 50–3. See also Potts, ‘Images’, pp. 4, 15, and for the twentieth century, A. Caesar, Taking it like a man. Suffering, sexuality and the war poets, Manchester, 1993, pp. 1–3.
23. T. Carlyle, On heroes, hero-worship and the heroic in history, Lincoln, NB, and London, 1966 (1841), esp. pp. 12–13, 198–9.
24. On military heroes, see J. MacKenzie, ‘Heroic myths of Empire’, in idem (ed.), Popular imperialism and the military, 1850–1950, Manchester, 1992, pp. 109–38. On Napoleon's image in Britain, see S. Semmel, Napoleon and the British, New Haven, CT, and London, 2004, and S. Bainbridge, Napoleon and English Romanticism, Cambridge, 1995, and on other celebrity cults, below pp. 130–2, 134–5.
25. L. Mascilli Migliorini, Il mito dell'eroe, Naples, 1984, pp. 10–15, 148–9.
26. Both quoted in C. Crossley, French historians and romanticism. Thierry, Guizot, the Saint-Simonians, Quinet, Michelet, London, 1993, pp. 55, 230.
27. B. Schwartz, George Washington. The making of an American symbol, New York, 1987, pp. 50, 179. Of course this model too was beset by political tensions: I am referring here to an ideal type.
28. Scritti, 29, pp. 92–4.
29. See above, pp. 24–6.
30. Adrian Lyttelton, ‘Creating a national past: history, myth and image in the Risorgimento’, in A. R. Oscoli and K. von Henneberg (eds), Making and remaking Italy. The cultivation of national identity around the Risorgimento, Oxford, 2001, pp. 31, 33.
31. Honour, Neo-classicism, pp. 184–90; T. Crow, ‘Classicism in crisis: Gros to Delacroix’, in Nineteenth-century art, pp. 55–81.
32. On Byron and the ‘anti-heroes’ of romanticism, see M. Praz, The romantic agony, London, 1933, pp. 58–69.
33. W. Scott, Rob Roy, Boston, MA, 1956 (1817), pp. xxxiv, 218, 285, 300. See also the comments of A. Welsh, The hero of the Waverley novels, Princeton, NJ, 1992 edn, pp. 40–8.
34. Scott, Rob Roy, pp. 296, 305, 308–9, 354.
35. Lyttelton, ‘Creating a national past’, pp. 33.
36. Ibid., p. 36.
37. Ibid.
38. J. Farr, ‘Understanding conceptual change politically’, in T. Ball et al. (eds), Political innovation and conceptual change, Cambridge, 1989, pp. 24–49.
39. J. Tulard, Napoleon. The myth of the saviour, London, 1985; see also R. Gildea, The past in French history, New Haven, CT, 1996, pp. 89–111 and S. Hazareesingh, The legend of Napoleon, London, 1994.
40. Lyttelton, ‘Creating a national past’, p. 29; see also pp. 46–61.
41. C. Jean, ‘Garibaldi e il volontariato italiano nel Risorgimento’, Rassegna Storica del Risorgimento, 64/2, 1982, pp. 401–3; C. Cesari, Corpi volontari italiani dal 1848 al 1870, Rome, 1921, pp. 1–84.
42. There is a vast literature on the 1848–9 revolutions; the best and most up-to-date general survey in English is J. Sperber, The European revolutions, 1848–1851, Cambridge, 1994.
43. See Scritti, 35, pp. 140–1.
44. Both reports are reprinted in A. Cavaciocchi, ‘Le prime gesta di Garibaldi in Italia’, Rivista Militare Italiana, 6, 1907, pp. 5–87.
45. L'Italia del Popolo, 28 June 1848.
46. Scritti e discorsi, 1, pp. 87–8.
47. 11 July and 15 July 1848, in Scritti, 35, p. 248.
48. D. Mack Smith, Mazzini, London, 1994, pp. 58–9.
49. R. Sarti, Mazzini. A life for the religion of politics, Westport, CT, 1997, pp. 132–3.
50. 2 July and 8 July, 1848, in Scritti, 35, pp. 239, 246.
51. J. Ridley, Garibaldi, London, 1974, pp. 242–3.
52. D. Laven, ‘The age of restoration’, in J. A. Davis (ed.), Italy in the nineteenth century, Oxford, 2000, pp. 67–9.
53. Mack Smith, Mazzini, p. 62; on ‘the first war of independence’ in 1848, see P. Pieri, Storia militare del Risorgimento. Guerre e insurrezioni, Turin, 1962, pp. 197–263.
54. Scritti, 35, p. 260.
55. 27 July 1848, in Scritti e discorsi, 1, pp. 89–90.
56. Its printed programme is reproduced in Edizione nazionale degli scritti di Garibaldi, vol. 1. Le memorie di Garibaldi in una delle redazioni anteriori alla definitiva del 1872, Bologna, 1932, pp. 80–1.
57. 31 July 1848.
58. There is a useful chapter in Ridley, Garibaldi, pp. 243–54, on the 1848 campaign. See also, P. Pieri, Storia militare del Risorgimento, Turin, 1962, pp. 337–43 and Garibaldi condottiero, Rome, 1932, pp. 63–85. Both Cavaciocchi, ‘Le prime gesta’, and L. Giampolo and M. Bertolone, La prima campagna di Garibaldi in Italia (da Luino a Morazzone) e gli avvenimenti militari e politici nel Varesotto 1848–1849, Varese, 1950, have an extensive selection of original documents relating to Garibaldi in 1848 (the latter includes correspondence of the Austrian army).
59. 13 Aug. 1848, the communal clerk of Castelletto Ticino to the governor of Novara, in Cavaciocchi, ‘Le prime gesta’, p. 20.
60. See ibid., esp. pp. 35–8, 48–50; Giampolo and Bertolone, La prima campagna, pp. 313–49.
61. Giampolo and Bertolone, La prima campagna, p. 348.
62. The protesta is in Scritti, 38, pp. 207–9. ‘Agli Italiani’ is also published in F. della Peruta (ed.), Giuseppe Mazzini, Scritti politici, 3 vols, Turin, 1976
, 2, pp. 314–19.
63. In Scritti, 39, pp. 3–70.
64. Scritti e discorsi, 1, pp. 92–4.
65. Ridley, Garibaldi, p. 246; Giampolo and Bertolone, La prima campagna, p. 317 has a copy of the manifesto conserved in the Kriegs Archiv, Vienna.
66. G. Candeloro, Storia dell'Italia moderna, 3. La rivoluzione nazionale, 1848–49, Milan, 1960, pp. 271–343.
67. 27 July 1848, in Scritti e discorsi, 1, pp. 89–90.
68. 3 Aug. 1848, ibid., pp. 90–2.
69. See P. Brunello, ‘Pontida’, in M. Isnenghi (ed.), I luoghi della memoria. Simboli e miti dell'Italia unita, Rome and Bari, 1996, pp. 15–28 and Lyttelton, ‘Creating a national past’, pp. 46–50.
70. Pieri, Storia militare, p. 331.
71. 11 Sept. 1848, republished in Scritti, 35, p. 321.
72. 9 Sept. 1848, to the minister of war and navy, Cavaciocchi, ‘Le prime gesta’, pp. 81–2.
73. Scritti, 37, pp. 33–5. Garibaldi's speeches in Nice and Oneglia are in Scritti e discorsi, 1, pp. 95–6.
74. 28 Sept. 1848, from the military commander of San Remo to the governor of Nice, in Cavaciocchi, ‘Le prime gesta’, pp. 82–3.
75. Sperber, The European revolutions, p. 1.
76. Ibid., p. 148.
77. Ibid., p. 165. There is a substantial literature on the process of politicisation in the 1848–9 revolutions: see especially M. Agulhon, The republic in the village: the people of the Var from the French Revolution to the Second Republic, Cambridge 1982; P. McPhee, The politics of rural life. Political mobilisation in the French countryside, 1846–1952, Oxford, 1992; and J. Sperber, Rhineland radicals: the democratic movement and the revolution of 1848–1849, Princeton, NJ, 1991.
78. On newspapers in 1848–9, see F. della Peruta, ‘Il giornalismo dal 1847 all'Unità’, in A. Galante Garrone and F. della Peruta, La stampa italiana del Risorgimento, Rome and Bari, 1979, pp. 331–465.
79. S. La Salvia, ‘Nuove forme della politica: l'opera dei circoli popolari’, Rassegna Storica del Risorgimento, 86, 1999, pp. 227–66; R. de Longis, ‘Tra sfera pubblica e difesa dell'onore. Donne nella Roma del 1849’, Roma Moderna e Contemporanea, 9/1–3, 2001, pp. 263–83; R. Balzani, ‘Consenso “patriottico” o consenso “repubblicano”? La Repubblica Romana a Forlì’, in S. Mattarelli (ed.), Politica in periferia. La Repubblica Romana del 1848 fra modello francese e municipalità romagnola, Ravenna, 1999, pp. 11–27; F. Rizzi, La coccarda e le campane. Comunità rurali e Repubblica Romana nel Lazio (1848–1849), Milan, 1989; A. de Clementi, Vivere nel latifondo. Le comunità della campagna laziale fra ‘700 e ‘800, Milan, 1989, pp. 167–87.
