by Roy Jackson
THE CIVILIZED STATE
The civilized state would possess the following elements:
• The polis will no longer be a small community. It will be swollen in size because of the necessity for people catering for needs that are not basic. For example, artists, sculptors, embroiderers, painters, musicians, poets, dancers and more servants.
• Inevitably, wealth will lead to greed, envy, jealousy and increased conflict. Many more doctors will be required because of greater ill health due to overindulgence in luxurious foods and stressful living.
• To feed these people, more land will be required, which will mean infringing on the territory of other states. This will lead to war, and so soldiers will also be needed. Further, to maintain unity for this large and multifarious state, rulers will be needed. These soldiers and rulers make up what Plato calls the Guardians.
THE THREE CLASSES
Plato believed that injustice is caused by disharmony in society. If society functions so that the intellect rules and is not distracted by desire, then you have a healthy and just community. However, as Glaucon pointed out, this ideal is not a realistic one, for societies are much more complex than this and basic needs must include things such as theatre, music, art and good food. Accepting this, Socrates wonders how justice can possibly be maintained in such a society. Here he presents the need for government and a strict division of society into three classes:
• The Rulers. The Rulers make up the upper echelon of the Guardians of the polis. They effectively govern the state.
• The Auxiliaries. These make up the lower echelon of the Guardians. These are the military. This fits in with Plato’s belief that the best society should concentrate on specialization; that is, each to his trade. Normally, all citizens of the polis were considered as potential soldiers should the need arise, but Plato saw the merits of having a section of society specifically trained in the art of fighting.
• The Money-makers. This, the economic class, consists of the farmers, artisans and traders – basically, anyone who is not involved in governmental or military affairs.
For the rest of Republic, Plato concentrates mostly on the education and character of the Guardians. As a single group they possess talents that lend them to a philosophic nature. However, the Rulers will be the ones that will engage in more advanced philosophical study and so will be separate from the Auxiliaries depending on their temperament. The Rulers will have a more intellectual, rational and contemplative temperament, while the Auxiliaries will have a more ‘spirited’ and fierce quality, but will be obedient to the Rulers.
The third class will continue to exercise their appetites as they see fit, and their function is to satisfy the economic needs of the state. It should be pointed out that the third class are not ‘working class’, as they are able to own property and make money. However, Plato points out that measures need to be taken to avoid excessive wealth or, for that matter, poverty.
The structure of this polis would, therefore, be made up like this:
Really, there should be a fourth strata, that of the slaves. However, Plato assumed that any society would require slaves and they were not, in Plato’s time, considered as possessing any rights. This, of course, strikes us as shocking today but it must be remembered that Plato was writing at a time when any society of any degree of sophistication required a slave-class in order to function. The fact that Plato did not see this as in any way immoral may well be an argument for moral relativism! It does certainly show that Plato was a product of his time.
THE LIFESTYLE OF THE GUARDIANS
In order for this polis to function, Plato highlights the importance that the Guardians receive the right education and live a certain lifestyle – otherwise the state would be just as corrupt as any other. At first impression, this might well be the conclusion, since it appears that this caste system would allow the Rulers and Auxiliaries to have immense power. Plato does not deny that they would possess the power – both political and military. However, remember that Plato believed that power could be wielded wisely and for the good of the community, provided those who have the power are brought up correctly.
Socrates says that the Guardians should possess the same qualities as a good watchdog, that of courage, strength and loyalty. The Guardians are to be gentle and protective towards their own, and also dangerous and fierce towards their enemies. Socrates also believed that as a dog loves those it knows, it therefore has a love of knowledge, and so has that essential quality: a philosophic nature!
Socrates argues that the Guardians must lead a lifestyle that will enable them to perform their duties while avoiding the temptations that power can offer and, as a result, doing damage to the community. Therefore, the Guardians must always act in the interests of the polis as a whole, and not for their own selfish concerns. How can this be achieved? The picture Plato paints of the Guardians’ lifestyle is a radical, some might say ‘communistic’ one, with very strict conditions (the Money-Making class, of course, will not be governed by any of these rules):
• They are to have no personal wealth or own any property. Since they will share things, there will be no dissension, envy or jealousy. They will not be concerned with the acquisition of wealth, and will not fight over who possesses what.
• They are to have no family ties and are to live communally. Plato saw the family, especially the complex kinship ties that existed in his time, as a divisive force that encourages selfishness rather than a concern for the community as a whole.
• Men and women are to be seen as equals provided they share the same capabilities. This was certainly the most radical and, for many Greeks at the time, shocking proposal. However, Plato saw this purely from a practical perspective in that not using women is a waste of half Athens’ population. Women and men only differ in a bodily sense, not in qualities of the intellect or character.
• The children will also be brought up communally, bred and raised in common, with no specific mother or father. Adult Guardians will regard every child as their own, and the children will see every Guardian as their parent. This would result in an ‘extended loyalty’ as you will see all others as your family.
This lifestyle is actually modelled on a real society; that of Athens’ arch enemy, the polis of Sparta (see Case Study in Chapter 3). To live a ‘Spartan lifestyle’ has now entered everyday language and is synonymous with austerity and discipline. The Spartans were single-mindedly devoted to the state and they lived a continuous military existence, living communally in barracks. However, despite certain qualities that Plato admired, he also found them to be deficient in a number of respects. For example, the Spartans had a system known as helotry. The helots were slaves who worked the Spartan land. These helots were treated far more severely than the slaves of Athens, being perceived as little more than animals and were even hunted and killed as part of military practice. Not surprisingly, helots frequently revolted against their overlords, which meant that the Spartans had to be continually on their guard. Further, the Spartans were not renowned for their intellect, and their stupidity was mocked by the Greek comic playwright Aristophanes (c. 446–c. 386 BC) in his play Lysistrata. Certainly, the Spartans would not have Plato’s requirement of a philosophic nature!
The ‘Noble Lie’
How will Plato maintain this strict division of the classes? Plato argues that his polis should introduce a ‘magnificent myth’ or ‘fine fiction’. This myth will be taught to all three classes of the polis and will teach that all members of the city are brothers, born of Mother Earth, and forged within her womb. And so the very land they live on is their mother, and its entire people are brothers forged from the same soil. The Rulers have the metal of gold mixed in their composition, the Auxiliaries have silver, and the Money-makers iron and bronze. Knowing this, people will accept their place because it is their constitution, and it would be a terrible thing if someone of a lower metal, such as iron or bronze, ruled the state.
This myth has
often been translated as the ‘Noble Lie’, although perhaps this helps feed criticisms that Plato is using propaganda. Indeed, Plato’s most vehement critic, the philosopher Karl Popper (1902–94), believed the myth is typical of Plato’s desire to create a totalitarian and propagandist state. It certainly smacks of inherent inequality and bears a strong resemblance to the Hindu beliefs that provide support for their caste system. However, Plato is recognizing the influence of myth upon society (see Chapter 12); certainly in his own day when the Athenians governed their lives and moral sense on the writing of poets and myth-makers.
Plato’s class system was not entirely stringent, however. As all three classes are brothers, it is conceivable that someone from the Money-making class may be born with gold or silver in their composition, and likewise someone born in the Guardian class with bronze or iron. In such a case, this would be acknowledged and that person would shift classes. There is, therefore, a degree of social mobility and an acknowledgement of merit. Although Plato does not specifically refer to the education of the third class, it must be the case that they would get at least a rudimentary level of education to not only function as Money-makers, but to also identify those who have philosophic natures. Likewise, if someone born among the Guardians proves not to have the intellect or courage required, they would enter the third class as a farmer or craftsman.
The just state and the just individual
Plato believes that this vision of the state will be a just one provided each section of society knows its place. The Money-makers will be able to pursue their appetites, but will be governed by the reason and spirit of the Guardians. Likewise, the Auxiliaries will have their spirit tempered by the reason of the Rulers. Here we have a perfect balance and, consequently, a healthy and civilized state. It is the social embodiment of justice. But would the Guardians be happy?
The picture portrayed of the life of the Guardians certainly does not seem a happy one, lacking luxuries or sensual pleasure. However, Plato believed they would be happy because the possession of knowledge is in itself a satisfying thing. Further, the Guardians would obtain satisfaction from the fact that they were benefiting the whole of society by their actions rather than simply satisfying their own desires.
The healthy soul
Having pictured the state as a whole, Plato can now compare this to the individual. The three classes function in the ideal polis in the same way as the three elements of the soul. The Rulers represent reason (the charioteer), the Auxiliaries spirit (the white horse) and the Money-makers are the appetites (the black horse). In the same way that the just and good city is kept in check by the Rulers, the good and just soul needs to be controlled by the charioteer; not an easy task with two such diverse horses.
And so Plato’s definition of justice is when the three elements of the soul, the psyche, know their places. The healthy soul, controlled by reason, is the just soul. In the same way justice in society is a harmonious relation between the classes, so justice in the individual is a harmonious relation between the different elements of the personality. Therefore, Plato is making a link between the just soul and the healthy soul. To be just is also to be physically and mentally stable and healthy.
Has Plato satisfactorily responded to the criticisms of Thrasymachus and Glaucon?
• First, Plato has to show that Man is just by nature rather than by convention. Glaucon argued that Man would naturally be unjust if he could get away with it. If it is the case that the soul’s natural state is when the three elements function properly and are controlled by reason, then Plato could argue that Man, by nature, is just.
• Second, Plato has to show that it is to the individual’s benefit to be just. Thrasymachus argued that it is better to be unjust rather than just. If Plato can argue that justice can indeed be equated with physical and mental health, then this would obviously be to the individual’s benefit.
• Much depends, therefore, on whether it is reasonable to link the just soul with the healthy soul. Plato’s theory has similarities with the psychology of Sigmund Freud (1856–1939, see Case Study below). Freud also divided the psyche into three elements: the ego, super-ego and the id. The ego and the id correspond closely to Plato’s reason and desire, while the super-ego – the conscience – assists the ego (reason) by providing an emotional force to keep the id (desire) in check. Plato believes that when desire – the appetites – are allowed to run free then we behave immorally. Therefore, when the three elements are not functioning properly we are mentally unstable and liable to commit immoral acts. There are, however, a number of problems with this:
• When someone acts immorally it seems far-fetched to say that they are mentally sick. There are many people who act unjustly yet seem to behave quite normally mentally. Even if it is the case that the mentally stable condition is where reason controls the appetites, it is debatable whether the rational part cannot be used to be unjust. For example, you can exercise your reason and self-discipline to rob a bank!
• What we consider to be mental illness seems conditioned by our environment. In today’s society we would regard someone who thinks slavery is a good thing as ‘sick’, but this would not be the case in Plato’s day.
• Freud believed that excessive repression of desire could itself be harmful and lead to mental illness. Plato’s soul, like its analogy with the ideal state, is authoritarian and suggests that the appetites will be suppressed, although this criticism may be somewhat unfair on Plato as the distinction between the three parts of the soul is not so clear-cut; rather than the suppression of the appetites, it might be better described as ‘reasoned emotion’.
The Interpretation of Dreams
Freud regarded his 1899 work The Interpretation of Dreams as his most important, yet it sold only 351 copies in the first six years after publication. As a result, the second edition was not published until 1909. After that it grew in popularity and a further six editions were published before he died in 1939.
In Plato’s ideal state, the Rulers will act like the psychiatrist who determines what is good for the psyche. This is based upon Plato’s conviction that experts in political science can rule the state. Whether the day-to-day running of the state can really be considered a science is certainly a debatable point, although Plato argues that the Guardians will have the expertise required.
Plato places much emphasis on the need for authority, whether it be the rule by the Guardians in the state, or the rule by reason and spirit in the soul. For Plato, a ‘democratic soul’, like a democratic state, would result in a liberal attitude towards the appetites, which would be given too much freedom, which, in turn, would lead to immorality.
Id, ego and super-ego
Plato’s concern with mental wellbeing and his idea of the tripartite psyche has a more recent counterpart in Freud’s psychology. Freud also saw the psyche as structured into three parts: the id, ego and the super-ego. The id (or ‘it’), analogous to the appetitive aspect of Plato’s soul, is the primitive and instinctive side of our personality and includes such drives as sex (which Freud calls Eros after the Greek god of love) and aggression, or death (which Freud calls Thanatos, the god of death). The id resides in our unconscious and it is instinctual in that it demands immediate satisfaction, irrespective of the reality of the situation or what our reason might tell us. Freud says that a new-born child is entirely id.
The ego (or ‘I’) acts as a mediator between the id and the external world, so whereas the id acts according to the pleasure principle, the ego acts according to the reality principle. This is analogous with Plato’s rational part of the mind, and Freud also uses Plato’s horse analogy in describing the ego as, ‘like a man on horseback, who has to hold in check the superior strength of the horse’. (Freud, The Ego and the Id, 1923)
The super-ego (or ‘above-I’) is somewhat analogous to Plato’s spirited element, though that analogy is perhaps weakest of the three. The super-ego is the moral element. Whereas the ego reigns in the id to achieve
realistic goals without a concern with the moral character of the act, the super-ego strives to ‘persuade’ the ego to pursue moral goals. If the ego fails to reign in the id, the ego can be ‘punished’ by the super-ego through the feeling of guilt. Alternatively, if the ego succeeds in overcoming the id, then it is rewarded with feelings such as pride. Like Plato, Freud is acknowledging the importance of society in the formation of our morals and values.
Key terms
Arete: A Greek word that can be translated as ‘excellence’ or ‘quality’. Plato believed that all things have an arete. For example, a pair of scissors’ arete is to cut. Humans, too, have an arete. The difficulty is in determining what this is.
Dikaiosune: A Greek word that is often translated as ‘justice’. However, it has a much wider meaning. It concerns the central issue of what is the right way to live your life, and how do you know that you are leading a good life?
Social contract: Many philosophers have speculated upon the origins of human nature and have suggested that humans form a ‘social contract’: that is, they agree to form a society and live under certain rules.
Dig deeper
Bobonich, C. (2004), Plato’s Utopia Recast: His Later Ethics and Politics. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Popper, K. (2011), The Open Society and Its Enemies. Abingdon, Oxon: Routledge.
Fact check
1 Which one of the following describes the Noble Lie?
a The three classes are forged from the same soil but possess either gold, silver or bronze in their physical constitution
b The three classes are forged from the same soil but possess tin, copper or iron in their physical constitution
