by Roy Jackson
c The three classes are forged from the same soil but their class is determined by their karma
d The three classes are forged from the same soil but they possess gold, frankincense and myrrh
2 Which one of the following is a translation for the Greek word arete?
a justice
b excellence
c soul
d function
3 In Republic, which of the following represents the views of Cephalus on justice?
a Telling the truth and giving back what one has borrowed
b What is just is what is in the interests of the stronger
c An ‘eye for an eye’
d Give and ye shall receive
4 In Republic, which of the following represents the views of Polemarchus on justice?
a Telling the truth and giving back what one has borrowed
b Might is right
c An ‘eye for an eye’
d The meek shall inherit the Earth
5 In Republic, which of the following represents the views of Thrasymachus on justice?
a Telling the truth and giving back what one has borrowed
b What is just is what is in the interests of the stronger
c An ‘eye for an eye’
d Loving thy neighbour
6 In Republic, what is the name of the mythical character who possessed a ring that made him invisible?
a Gollum
b Wotan
c Alberich
d Gyges
7 What is the social contract theory?
a People agree to imprison anyone who is not social
b People agree to reject any kind of society
c People agree to form a society and to live under a set of rules
d People agree to disagree
8 Which one of the following is one of Plato’s three ‘classes’ in his ideal state?
a Preliminaries
b Secretaries
c Luminaries
d Auxiliaries
9 Which element describes the Guardians?
a courageous, spirited element
b intellectual, rational element
c emotional, appetitive element
d hysterical, irrational element
10 Which one of the following is a translation for the Greek word dikaiosune?
a craft or skill
b function
c justice
d soul
7
The Philosopher-King
‘[Socrates] Given that philosophers are those capable of getting hold on that which remains forever exactly as it is, and those who have no such capacity, lost and wandering as they are in a multiplicity of things that are now this and now that, are non-philosophers, which of these should lead the city?’
Plato, Republic, 484b
Having previously considered Plato’s theory of knowledge in Republic we then, in the last chapter, linked this with his political views, for his politics and epistemology cannot really be separated. The key question in Republic is ‘what is justice?’ and we considered the differing views of justice, dikaiosune, and how Plato, through the voice of Socrates, approached this subject ‘writ large’ by considering the just state, with its three parts of Guardians, Auxiliaries and Money-makers, before then comparing this to the three parts of the soul of the individual.
Plato has been accused of being totalitarian in his political views, but remembering that his political philosophy is closely tied to his views on where our knowledge of what is true comes from, he argues against the democratic state because it inevitably detracts from truth. In order for the human being to flourish, he or she needs the right environment: the right society and the right education.
The three polis
In Republic, Plato presents a picture of three very different city-states (polis):
• The City of Athens
• The City of the Forms
• The City of the Republic
Plato sees the first, the City of Athens, as corrupt. It is, remember, the city that killed Socrates. It is the city that does not allow the man of thought to practise his wares, but bows to the whims of the mob. Plato who had, as a young man, considered entering public life and becoming a politician, became disillusioned with the state of Athenian society and the way politicians behaved.
The second, the City of the Forms, is the ideal city that transcends earthly existence. Plato admits that this is an ideal that we should strive for and may not ever be a reality. In every way, it is perfect. The great Christian philosopher and theologian, St Augustine, was heavily influenced by the writings of Plato and it was this idea of the City of the Forms that prompted him to write The City of God (see below and Chapter 13).
The third, the City of the Republic, is the ‘in-between’ of the other two. As we move away from the City of Athens towards the City of the Forms, we can create a real and better society on Earth. Plato was not just presenting a theoretical vision of society, for he believed it could, to some extent at least, actually be achieved, although humans being the imperfect creatures that they are it might never be as perfect as the City of the Forms, but it can get close to it.
St Augustine of Hippo
Aurelius Augustinus Hipponensis, better known simply as St Augustine, was a philosopher and Christian theologian who was influenced by Plato’s philosophy (see also Chapter 13). Augustine was born in AD 354 in what is now Algeria, but then it was called Thagaste and was part of the Roman Empire. As a full Roman citizen, he received a good education in Latin literature and the writing of the Greeks, including Plato and Aristotle of course. In particular, he became skilled in rhetoric, the art of discourse. Whereas Socrates, in Plato’s dialogues, practises dialectic, Aristotle states in his work The Art of Rhetoric that rhetoric is the counterpart of dialectic. By ‘counterpart’, however, Aristotle did not mean the opposite of dialectic. Rather it is better understood as a replacement for rhetoric for specific scenarios, especially in matters of civic affairs in law. Whereas dialectic is more theoretical and concerned with how we define our terms, rhetoric might be regarded as more ‘practical’. Regardless of these rather subtle distinctions, what both rhetoric and dialectic aim to achieve is to persuade, though the systematic methods differ.
Augustine, like Plato, was influential in education, being an advocate of critical thinking skills. He converted to Christianity in AD 386 at the age of 31 after he heard a voice telling him to ‘take up and read’, which he understood to be a command from God to open the Bible and read the first thing that he saw – a passage from Romans (Chapter 13, verses 13&14), which outlines how the Gospel transforms believers. Augustine died in AD 430 and was canonized in 1298 by Pope Boniface VIII. He is the patron saint of theologians, printers and brewers! In his City of God Augustine, like Plato’s Republic, conceives of an ideal city for which humans can only aspire to. Our salvation, however, is not by rational thought and acquiring knowledge of the Forms, but by adhering to Christian principles.
The critique of democracy
Democracy
Athens is regarded as the birthplace of democracy but, if democracy is interpreted here as power belonging to free male citizens (as was the case with Athens in the 6th century BC) then there is a case for its origins in many other parts of the world before Athens, including possibly Mesopotamia and independent Indian states.
For Plato, the problem with the democracy that existed in Athens was that there was no sense of individual responsibility. The democratic system inherently lacks direction, without any real order or restraint upon the desires of the masses. The ‘democratic man’ has no desire for change in his life because he perceives himself to be free and happy, while lacking civic duty. Republic is not just a critique of democracy, but also a critique of liberalism, the kind of liberalism that allows people to pursue wealth and power but without any thought for the welfare of the state as a whole or, more importantly, with any concern for knowledge. What matters most in the Athenian state
is whatever the opinion of the masses happens to be.
THE PHILOSOPHER-KING
[Adeimantus] ‘…if people take up philosophy, not just in order to complete their education, and something to be abandoned before they’ve grown up, but rather as something to spend their time on even after that, they mostly become downright peculiar, not to say totally corrupted, and even the ones that seem the most responsible, when they’re subjected to this kind of treatment by the pursuit you praise so much, turn out to be of no use to their cities.’
Plato, Republic, 487d
Having defined the philosopher as the lover of knowledge, and believing that there is such a thing as knowledge and not just opinion, Plato wanted to show that those who are experts in knowledge should rule the state. Either kings should become philosophers, or philosophers should become kings. But Plato is confronted by a severe criticism from another character in Republic, his other brother Adeimantus. Adeimantus is not quite as prepared as Glaucon to be so amenable. Although, Adeimantus argues (see quote above) it may well be the case that those with knowledge of statesmanship should rule the state, it seems a ridiculous claim that this should be philosophers! Take a look around you! What a funny bunch philosophers are! Can they, argues Adeimantus, really make good rulers? If anything, they appear worthless and useless to society.
To the surprise of Adeimantus, Plato’s character Socrates agrees with him. Yes, they are worthless and useless individuals in Athenian society. However, Socrates intends to argue, that this is the fault of society. It is society that needs to change if philosophers are to be true philosophers.
THE SIMILE OF THE SHIP
To illustrate his critique, Socrates presents the image of the simile of the ship (Republic, 488b–489c). This simile, the ‘ship of state’, is not uncommon to us today, but it was first set forth by Plato.
• On this ship, this ‘ship of democracy’, the captain is bigger and stronger than any of the crew, but somewhat short-sighted and a little deaf. He is also no expert in seamanship.
• The crew of sailors constantly quarrel over who should be in control of the helm, although none of them have learned navigation. In fact, the crew believes navigation is not something that can be taught at all.
• The crew begs and cajoles the captain into allowing them to take control of steering the ship and, ultimately, those who are most successful at persuading the captain – whether through the art of oral persuasion or through more underhand means such as plying the captain with alcohol or opium – take control and turn the voyage into a ‘drunken carousel’.
• The man at the helm then elects as a navigator whoever helps in his quest to control the captain, regardless of whether or not that person actually has any navigation skills.
• Meanwhile, the true navigator, the one who has studied the stars, winds and seasons of the year is more than capable of steering the ship safely to its destination. The others see this genuine navigator as a ‘stargazer’ who spends his time in idle chatter and is useless to them.
How can we ‘unpack’ this parable?
• The ship itself represents the democratic state. That is, Athenian society during Plato’s time.
• The captain of the ship represents the citizens of the state; large and powerful, but rather deaf and short-sighted and lacking the skills of statesmanship. The captain can only understand the rhetoric of the crew, not the science of navigation.
• The crew are the politicians; each vying for power and attempting to persuade the citizens that they, the politicians, should represent them. They will use any means, including the ‘opium’ of rhetoric. They are the Sophists, like Thrasymachus, who manipulate the mob but are not concerned with truth.
• The genuine navigator, of course, is the Philosopher-King. The Greek poet and playwright Aristophanes in The Clouds (a play Plato was familiar with) characterized Socrates as a ‘star-gazer’.
This parable is not only an attack on democracy, but also the consequences of democracy; the emphasis on opinion rather than knowledge. Knowledge is not something that can be determined by the vote. For example, using the analogy of the physician once more, if you are sick you do not vote for the person to heal you who happens to be the most persuasive. Rather, you rely on the physician’s knowledge and experience, as well as his concern for your best interests.
Winston Churchill on democracy
Even in more recent times, and in democratic societies, many have doubted the benefits of democracy. The quote ‘The best argument against democracy is a five-minute conversation with the average voter’ is often attributed to the British statesman Winston Churchill (1874–1965), although there isn’t any concrete evidence he ever said this. He did, however, say: ‘Democracy is the worst form of government except for all those other forms that have been tried from time to time.’ (House of Commons speech, 11 November 1947). This is actually much more positive towards democracy and, as Churchill admits himself, not an original quote by himself!
THE BEAST
Plato presents another parable to illustrate how the Sophists manipulate the masses. He asks us to imagine the keeper of a large and powerful animal (493b). If the keeper is to control this animal he must learn its moods and needs, how it should be approached and handled, what makes it gentle or savage, the meaning of its language, what tones of voice soothe it and so on. Having studied all of this, the keeper will call this study ‘science’, reduce it to a system, and set up a school.
However, is this really what we can call knowledge? The keeper is not in the least bit concerned as to whether the desires and moods of the animal are good or bad, so long as they are satisfied. It is rather like having a pet monkey that likes eating bananas all day and never wants to sleep: you know you can control it by giving it bananas and letting it play all day, but you will end up with a fat and tired monkey! Therefore, it may be the most expedient thing to do, but it is not the right thing to do. Another illustration would be if you have young children. Do you give them sweets every time they cry merely to stop them crying?
The meaning of the parable is quite clear:
• The beast represents the people of the state. They are strong and powerful, but liable to be cajoled and persuaded so long as their basic needs are satisfied.
• The keeper represents the politicians, especially the Sophists, who are able to cater to the people’s needs and call this ‘science’, when in fact they have no knowledge or concern for justice or right conduct.
The true philosopher
‘With any seed or growing thing,’ I [Socrates] said, ‘no matter whether it’s a plant or an animal, we know that if it hasn’t had the particular nourishment that’s appropriate to it, or the right weather, or location, the more vigorous specimen it is the greater the number of ways it will fail; bad, I think, is more opposed to good than it is to something that’s merely not good.’
Plato, Republic, 491d
Having presented these parables or similes, Plato has hoped to show why the philosopher is seen as worthless to society. In the simile of the ship the philosopher is the star-gazing navigator, while in the beast simile he would not be appreciated by the animal because he does not allow it to do as it wished. In Athenian society, nobody likes a know-all even if, as a result, the ship of state ends up sinking in the middle of the ocean, or the beast dies at an early age of an avoidable heart attack.
In the corrupt city that was Athens, the philosophers are perceived as useless rogues, and here Socrates is making a strong case for the influence of society upon a person’s character. Remember that for Plato – and for most Greeks – the individual was an integral part of society. If the community as a whole is corrupt then this is bound to affect the individual within that community.
Further, Plato argues, it is true of any growing thing that those of the finest nature suffer more from evils done to them than those of an average nature. The ‘philosophic nature’ is something inherent in certain individuals; a powerful force for g
ood that, however, can be manipulated as a force for bad. A Jedi knight can become Obi-Wan Kenobi or Darth Vader! For example, a dog can be brought up to be useful to society, perhaps as a guide dog or a sniffer dog, or as a companion for the elderly. However, the same dog, if given a bad upbringing, could be vicious, attacking postmen and biting the hand that feeds it. The philosopher, ultimately, cannot be educated according to standards different from the community he is a part of. Should he ever recall his philosophical nature and wish to pursue philosophy once more, the peer pressure will be so great he will be compelled to put aside this yearning.
The ‘common people’ would not approve of true philosophy and will pressure those with the talents of a philosophic nature (courage, intellect, self-control, etc.) to use their skill for other goals, perhaps in business or entertainment. A modern-day analogy might be a talented poet who is compelled to write advertising slogans for a living because society has little patience or understanding of poetry. Plato argues that the reputation that philosophy has for intellectual vigour and wisdom will remain, but, in the unscrupulous society, will attract rogues who, like the simile of the ship, declare themselves navigators but have little or no knowledge of navigation.
However, there will always be a few true philosophers; but society looks upon them like the useless star-gazers, and they are forced to withdraw from society and only watch the corruption and decline of their society.
Therefore, if the true philosopher is to be accepted by society as its ruler it is necessary for the whole of society to change. What Plato next proposes is a radical change in the structure of society that will sweep away the old democratic city of Athens and replace it with his republic.
