by Roy Jackson
Education
One of the lasting legacies of Plato’s philosophy is the value he placed upon education. Today, receiving a state education may be taken for granted by many people, but in Plato’s time this was not seen as a duty of the state, and not necessarily a valuable thing to have. The polis of Sparta, which many Athenians envied because of its strict discipline and order, was also renowned for its stupidity! Although Sparta was more advanced than Athens in that it did have a state system of education, the content of what was taught and how it was taught was radically different from Plato’s proposals. Even in Athens, it was only the aristocracy who received any kind of decent education, and this was left to the initiative of private individuals and organizations.
Plato was perhaps not so radical as to suggest an equal education for all people. The education he describes is limited to the Guardian class only. His ideal polis would still have slavery, while the Money-making class would probably be limited in their education to what they required to fulfil their tasks well. However, he did see the importance of a good education if you were to have a responsibility in running the affairs of the state, and that a good education was in the best interests for all in that state.
What is also important is how Plato thought education should be taught. His teaching methods and his attitude towards the learning process says as much about his views on human psychology as it does about his philosophy. Socrates, of course, always believed that you cannot really teach anybody anything, only point them in the right direction, and this view is something that Plato was also a proponent of. You cannot force people to learn, to drill facts into them. Rather, you can only guide people in how to think for themselves.
THE FOUR STAGES OF COGNITION
Plato’s thoughts on the educative process are in line with his metaphysical beliefs; the belief that there is a Truth, a reality, a Realm of the Forms. Ultimately, therefore, the best education a person can get is an awareness of the Forms and, especially, the Form of the Good. The Analogy of the Cave is also an analogy for the educative process. As the released prisoner makes his way up towards the entrance and out into the daylight he is, painfully, undergoing a learning process. Another way to imagine it is like steps up a ladder; you have to take one step at a time until you finally reach the top. These are the steps of cognition (knowing). There are four major steps:
• Eikasia
The first stage is at the bottom of the ladder, and it is the step at which most of Athens was at, according to Plato. In the cave analogy, it is the prisoners tied up at the bottom of the cave. It is also the character of Polemarchus in Republic, who readily accepts the traditional wisdom of his day and is uncritical in his thinking. In the metaphysical sense, it is an acceptance of the world of appearances, what Plato called eikasia; the world of images. For example, you may believe that you are a moral person simply because the gods command it.
• Pistis
The second stage takes great effort to get to. You have to break away from the comfort and security, the belief that ‘God is in heaven and all is well with the world’. This is when you begin to develop your critical thinking skills and begin to question the conventional views. In Republic, the character of Glaucon might fit into this category. Plato called it pistis or ‘common-sense belief’. That is, you have yet to be at the stage of knowledge, but your beliefs are correct ones, although you are not yet able to substantiate them. For example, you have come to your own conclusion that, say, killing is an immoral act, but you are not yet able to support and defend this view to any great extent.
• Dianoia
The third stage is a giant leap up the ladder of cognition. Plato called this dianoia or ‘thinking’. At this level you can engage in discursive thought. You not only believe something to be the case, you can defend it through discourse and logic. Although you do not yet have perfect knowledge, you have arrived at abstract notions of reality. Through the study of science, mathematics and geometry, you have an awareness of abstract, universal concepts. As a rather crude example, you know that one dog and one cat equals two animals but, rather than concentrating on the differences in the nature of the animals (one is a cat and one is a dog), you are aware of the oneness and universality of the mathematics of one plus one equalling two. Obviously, you would be aware of a lot more complex mathematics than this!
• Episteme and noesis
The fourth and final stage Plato called episteme and noesis: ‘knowledge’ and ‘intelligence’ respectively. This is the true philosophic stage, away entirely from superficial appearance and partaking in the Realm of the Forms. Rather than having to engage in reasoning from premises to conclusion, you can grasp the conclusion itself by apprehension and perceive the whole structure of knowledge. This is the enlightenment stage, when the prisoner in the cave analogy can perceive the Sun itself. In a more practical sense, it is when, through the conversational technique of dialectic, you are able to reach the true meaning of concepts such as justice.
THE SIMILE OF THE DIVIDED LINE
In Republic, Plato illustrates these epistemic states through yet another simile, that known as the Divided Line (509d–511e). This works rather like our ladder analogy above, as Socrates asks his interlocutor, in this case Glaucon, to imagine a line divided into four sections in all. Each of these sections ‘represents difference in relative clarity and obscurity’, so at the very bottom section would be eikasia, while the very top section would be noesis.
This simile is not quite as colourful as his others; there are no beasts, ships or caves here! However, the simile of a line can help in other ways, for it suggests that the move from eikasua (illusion) to that of the intelligible realm is connected whereas the cave analogy seems to regard the realm of the good as far removed from the prisoner of the cave, so as to be different worlds altogether. In the cave analogy the world of illusion is nothing more than a distraction from the Realm of the Forms, whereas the line analogy suggests that even at the bottom of the line this provides some kind of support for further up the line, giving us a closer relationship between the empirical world and the world of ideas. Here we have a simile that is more closely aligned with Plato’s epistemological views in later dialogues, notably Timaeus (see Chapter 11).
THE CURRICULUM
In order to progress up the ladder of cognition, the children of the Guardians in Plato’s ideal polis follow a strict educational curriculum that consists of three elements:
• Mousike (the liberal arts)
• Gymnastike (physical education)
• Mathematics.
For the children to be good Guardians, it is necessary for there to be a careful balance between these three elements.
• Mousike
Although this might be translated as ‘music’, it had a much broader meaning in Plato’s time than it does today. In effect, it covers all the liberal arts. Plato acknowledges the huge influence literature, theatre and music have in the formation of character and is well aware of its importance as an educational tool. In our modern society it is now acknowledged that young children in nurseries learn ideas and values through role play, music, stories and songs.
Equally, however, Plato believed the arts could have a powerful negative influence on character. In Athens, every child was brought up on a heavy diet of the great myth-makers such as Homer and Hesiod. However, Plato believed these were destructive rather than constructive; the only kind of character they form are those like Polemarchus: too accepting of the beliefs presented in these works. As a result, Plato presents a radical overhaul of the teaching of the liberal arts:
• Virtually the whole corpus of such works by Hesiod and Homer would be banned as these portray traditional heroes and gods as liars, deceivers, thieves, adulterers and so on.
• Only stories that present gods and heroes as perfect, honest and truthful should be promoted. They must have a strong moral content that encourages virtuous conduct rather than praising immorality.
•
In Plato’s time, children learned the myths by acting out the roles, what is called mimesis (‘imitation’). Plato thought such acting would be bad for character as it could leave an indelible mark on young children embodying immoral characters. Therefore, acting, too, would be restricted to only portraying morally upright characters. Guardians must be single-minded and not have fragmented characters.
• For song and music, this too must be limited. Any form of music that encourages idleness, softness, indulgence or a lack of self-control would not be allowed. Music should only be used to express order, harmony and beauty. (See Chapter 12 for more on Plato’s views on the arts.)
• Gymnastike
A balanced character also requires a physical education.
• Physical training will aim to produce good physical health as well as prepare for war.
• Diet will also be simple, with the avoidance of rich foods, so that health will be seen as preventative.
• The young Guardians will be taken to battlefields to watch warfare in practice to prepare them for adulthood.
• Mathematics
When Plato talks of the ideal polis being ruled by Philosopher-Kings, it is often misinterpreted as portraying philosophers as the ‘head-in-the-clouds’ type. However, Plato saw his philosopher as not only very practically minded, but also an expert in the sciences. Mathematics provides training in reasoning abilities and is to be encouraged from an early age.
• The very young children will not be compelled to study mathematics, but will learn the techniques through play.
• At a more mature age, the young Guardians will study arithmetic, geometry, astronomy and harmonics.
It is interesting that Plato’s concern for the morality of our heroes has a modern ring to it, especially our concern with the influence of popular culture. However, his degree of censorship is extreme, and it is questionable whether the educational benefit of not having any awareness of immorality would be a good thing. Plato, however, was the first systematic thinker to see education as important in the development of character, rather than specific education or skills. He makes no mention of attaining grades or passing exams, or being expert in specific subjects over others.
It has been pointed out that the US education system is run on Platonic lines, with an emphasis on acquiring moral and social values and relationships with others, while academic achievement is left until secondary education. Plato, too, is making special reference to young children, whose reasoning abilities are still limited. However, Plato can be criticized for enforcing too rigid a teaching of social values at an early age, not allowing the individual to be able to discriminate between good and bad. There is a large amount of conformity, no alternative schooling, and much censorship, although Plato did believe that later in life they would be autonomous agents and intellectually adventurous.
The Education Reform Act
In the UK, the Education Reform Act, 1988, states that the aims of education are to ‘promote the spiritual, moral, cultural, mental and physical development of the pupils; and to prepare such pupils for the opportunities, responsibilities and experiences of adult life.’ This is not that far removed from Plato at all!
The four imperfect societies
In presenting his ideal polis, Plato was concerned with creating a society that, by promoting physical and moral health, would result in a finely balanced and harmonic society. Remember that Plato linked the state and the individual closely; if you have a just and healthy state then this is mirrored in the just and healthy individual, and vice versa. Plato was only too aware of the inadequacies of, not only Athens, but also other societies, and he highlights these to demonstrate the importance of a good moral and physical education.
These four imperfect states are:
• The timocracy
• The oligarchy
• The democracy
• The tyranny.
TIMOCRACY
A timocracy is a state where rulers are established upon the degree of honour (the ‘spirited’ part) they possess. This state is really that of Sparta, and Plato presents it as an example of a defect in education of the ruling class. In Sparta there was much greater emphasis on the physical than the mental, and this resulted in a warlike and aggressive manner that is divisive. As the timocrats grow old, they place more emphasis on wealth and property and the state turns into an oligarchy.
OLIGARCHY
An oligarchy is ruled by the wealthy. The love of money stems from the desires for things that money can buy, and so this state represents the appetitive element. In effect, Plato sees this as not a unified state at all, but two states: the state for the rich and the state for the poor. The result is excessive greed, and inevitable civil strife among the classes. In time, the poor overthrow the rich and democracy is formed.
DEMOCRACY
This, of course, is Athens, and much has already been said about Plato’s critique of democracy. In a democracy the whole mob of appetites are satisfied. In terms of education, there is no credence given to those of intellect, rather for those who can persuade the masses. In time, a man will arise who can persuade the masses to follow him and a tyranny will result.
TYRANNY
A tyrant, by Greek standards, was not necessarily a cruel ruler. Rather, one who gains power illegitimately. As the democratic state sinks into anarchy, with varying forces vying for power, a leader will be chosen who will need to seize power by force in the name of restoring order. Having no legitimacy, the tyrant can only rule through the continuous use of force and the imposition of fear. In the elements of the soul, it is the dominance of the appetite for power.
The root of all evil
At the root of all evil in society are the defects in education of the Rulers. This is why it is not enough to provide an all-round education that the Auxiliaries, the soldiers, might receive, since this will result in an imbalance in the state resembling a timocracy. Rather, the best of the Guardians must pursue their studies further into the realm of abstract reasoning. This may take many years of both study and practical work before they can truly become Philosopher-Kings.
Key terms
Cognition: A philosophical term that refers to the action or faculty of knowing, to distinguish this from feeling and desire.
Democracy: A state ruled by the majority. However, in the case of Athens, only adult Greek males had the franchise.
Dianoia: A Greek word that can be translated as ‘thinking’.
Eikasia: A Greek word that can be translated as ‘appearance’.
Episteme: A Greek word that can be translated as ‘knowledge’.
Gymnastike: A Greek word that can be translated as ‘gymnastics’ and includes all physical exercise.
Mousike: A Greek word that can be translated as ‘music’, although it has a much broader meaning in that it includes all the arts.
Noesis: A Greek word that can be translated as ‘intelligence’.
Oligarchy: The rule by the few, also known as a plutocracy. Rule is established depending upon how much wealth you possess.
Pistis: A Greek word that can be translated as ‘common sense’.
Rhetoric: Broadly, the art of discourse, but it can have more complex and deeper meanings when applied to Plato or Socrates, for example.
Timocracy: A state ruled by people because they possess a certain amount of honour that is considered more important than intellect.
Tyranny: Also known as despotism. The state ruled by force by one ruler.
Dig deeper
Barrow, R. (2014), Plato and Education. Abingdon, Oxon: Routledge.
Nagel, J. (2014), Knowledge: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
O’Brien, D. (2006), An Introduction to the Theory of Knowledge. Cambridge: Polity Press.
Fact check
1 Which one of the following does Plato consider to be corrupt?
a The City of Atlantis
b The City of the Forms
c The C
ity of the Republic
d The City of Athens
2 In the simile of the ship, what does the ship represent?
a Sparta
b The democratic state
c Plato’s ideal city of the Forms
d The philosopher
3 In the simile of the ship, what does the navigator represent?
a The Sophists
b The philosopher
c The citizens of the state
d Sparta
4 What does the beast represent?
a The people of the state
b The philosopher
c Plato’s ideal city of the Forms
d The Sophists
5 Which one of the following is the highest stage of cognition (i.e. the highest in ladder or ‘line’)?
a Eikasia
b Pistis
c Dianoia
d Episteme
6 Which one of the following is the lowest stage of cognition (i.e. lowest in ladder or ‘line’)?
a Eikasia
b Episteme
c Pistis
d Dianoia
7 Which one of the following is Ancient Greek for the liberal arts?
a Mousike
b Gymnastike
c Mimesis
d Koultoura
8 Which one of the following is a name for a state ruled by someone who gains power illegitimately?
a Oligarchy
b Timocracy
c Tyranny
d Democracy
9 Which one of the following is a name for a state ruled by the wealthy?
a Democracy
b Timocracy
c Tyranny
d Oligarchy
10 Which one of the following is not a simile by Plato?
a The simile of the ship
b The simile of the beast
c The simile of the circle
d The simile of the line
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