Pilot's Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge (Federal Aviation Administration)

by Federal Aviation Administration

  Selecting a Flight School

  Selecting a flight school is an important consideration in the flight training process. FAA-approved training centers, FAA-approved pilot schools, noncertificated flying schools, and independent flight instructors conduct flight training in the United States. All flight training is conducted under the auspices of the FAA following the regulations outlined in 14 CFR parts 142, 141, or 61. Training centers, also referred to as flight academies, operate under 14 CFR part 142 and are certificated by the FAA. Application for certification is voluntary and the training center must meet stringent requirements for personnel, equipment, maintenance, facilities, and must teach a curriculum approved by the FAA. Training centers typically utilize a number of flight simulation training devices as part of its curricula. Flight training conducted at a training center is primarily done under contract to airlines and other commercial operators in transport or turbine aircraft, however many also provide flight training for the private pilot certificate, commercial pilot certificate, instrument rating, and ATP certificate.

  Figure 1-24. Type of aircraft flown by an airline transport pilot.

  Flight schools operating under 14 CFR part 141 are certificated by the FAA. Application for certification is voluntary and the school must meet stringent requirements for personnel, equipment, maintenance, facilities, and must teach an established curriculum, which includes a training course outline (TCO) approved by the FAA. The certificated schools may qualify for a ground school rating and a flight school rating. In addition, the school may be authorized to give its graduates practical (flight) tests and knowledge (computer administered written) tests. The FAA Pilot School Search database located at http://av-info.faa.gov/PilotSchool.asp, lists certificated ground and flight schools and the pilot training courses each school offers.

  Enrollment in a 14 CFR part 141 flight school ensures quality, continuity, and offers a structured approach to flight training because these facilities must document the training curriculum and have their flight courses approved by the FAA. These strictures allow 14 CFR part 141 schools to complete certificates and ratings in fewer flight hours, which can mean a savings on the cost of flight training for the student pilot. For example, the minimum requirement for a Private Pilot Certificate is 35 hours in a part 141-certificated school and 40 hours in a part 61-certificated school. (This difference may be insignificant for a Private Pilot Certificate because the national average indicates most pilots require 60 to 75 hours of flight training.)

  Many excellent flight schools find it impractical to qualify for the FAA part 141 certificates and are referred to as part 61 schools. 14 CFR part 61 outlines certificate and rating requirements for pilot certification through noncertificated schools and individual flight instructors. It also states what knowledge-based training must be covered and how much flight experience is required for each certificate and rating. Flight schools and flight instructors who train must adhere to the statutory requirements and train pilots to the standards found in 14 CFR part 61.

  One advantage of flight training under 14 CFR part 61 is its flexibility. Flight lessons can be tailored to the individual student, because 14 CFR part 61 dictates the required minimum flight experience and knowledge-based training necessary to gain a specific pilot’s license, but it does not stipulate how the training is to be organized. This flexibility can also be a disadvantage because a flight instructor who fails to organize the flight training can cost a student pilot time and expense through repetitious training. One way for a student pilot to avoid this problem is to ensure the flight instructor has a well-documented training syllabus.

  How To Find a Reputable Flight Program

  To obtain information about pilot training, contact the local FSDO, which maintains a current file on all schools within its district. The choice of a flight school depends on what type of certificate is sought, and whether an individual wishes to fly as a sport pilot or wishes to pursue a career as a professional pilot. Another consideration is the amount of time that can be devoted to training. Ground and flight training should be obtained as regularly and frequently as possible because this assures maximum retention of instruction and the achievement of requisite proficiency.

  Do not make the determination based on financial concerns alone, because the quality of training is very important. Prior to making a final decision, visit the schools under consideration and talk with management, instructors, and students. Request a personal tour of the flight school facility.

  Be inquisitive and proactive when searching for a flight school, do some homework, and develop a checklist of questions by talking to pilots and reading articles in flight magazines. The checklist should include questions about aircraft reliability and maintenance practices, and questions for current students such as whether or not there is a safe, clean aircraft available when they are scheduled to fly.

  Questions for the training facility should be aimed at determining if the instruction fits available personal time. What are the school’s operating hours? Does the facility have dedicated classrooms available for ground training required by the FAA? Is there an area available for preflight briefings, postflight debriefings, and critiques? Are these rooms private in nature in order to provide a nonthreatening environment in which the instructor can explain the content and outcome of the flight without making the student feel self-conscious?

  Examine the facility before committing to any flight training. Evaluate the answers on the checklist, and then take time to think things over before making a decision. This proactive approach to choosing a flight school will ensure a student pilot contracts with a flight school or flight instructor best suited to their individual needs.

  How To Choose a Certificated Flight Instructor (CFI)

  Whether an individual chooses to train under 14 CFR part 141 or part 61, the key to an effective flight program is the quality of the ground and flight training received from the CFI. The flight instructor assumes total responsibility for training an individual to meet the standards required for certification within an ever-changing operating environment. A CFI should possess an understanding of the learning process, knowledge of the fundamentals of teaching, and the ability to communicate effectively with the student pilot. During the certification process, a flight instructor applicant is tested on the practical application of these skills in specific teaching situations. The flight instructor is crucial to the scenario-based training program endorsed by the FAA. He or she is trained to function in the learning environment as an advisor and guide for the learner. The duties, responsibilities, and authority of the CFI include the following:

  • Orient the student to the scenario-based training system

  • Help the student become a confident planner and inflight manager of each flight and a critical evaluator of their own performance

  • Help the student understand the knowledge requirements present in real world applications

  • Diagnose learning difficulties and help the student overcome them

  • Evaluate student progress and maintain appropriate records

  • Provide continuous review of student learning

  Should a student pilot find the selected CFI is not training in a manner conducive for learning, or the student and CFI do not have compatible schedules, the student pilot should find another CFI. Choosing the right CFI is important because the quality of instruction and the knowledge and skills acquired from their flight instructor affect a student pilot’s entire flying career.

  The Student Pilot

  The first step in becoming a pilot is to select a type of aircraft. FAA rules for obtaining a pilot’s certificate differ depending on the type of aircraft flown. Individuals can choose among airplanes, gyroplanes, weight-shift, helicopters, powered parachutes, gliders, balloons, or airships. A pilot does not need a certificate to fly ultralight vehicles.

  Basic Requirements

  A student pilot is one who is being trained by an instructor pilot for his or her firs
t full certificate, and is permitted to fly alone (solo) under specific, limited circumstances. Before a student pilot may be endorsed to fly solo, that student must have a Student Pilot Certificate. There are multiple ways that an aspiring pilot can obtain their Student Pilot Certificate. The application may be processed by an FAA inspector or technician, an FAA-Designated Pilot Examiner, a Certified Flight Instructor (CFI), or an Airman Certification Representative (ACR). If the application is completed electronically, the authorized person will submit the application to the FAA’s Airman Certification Branch (AFS-760) in Oklahoma City, OK, via the Integrated Airman Certification and Rating Application (IACRA). If the application is completed on paper, it must be sent to the local Flight Standards District Office (FSDO), who will forward it to AFS-760. Once the application is processed, the applicant will receive the Student Pilot Certificate by mail at the address provided on the application.

  The aforementioned process will become effective on April 1, 2016. The new certificate will be printed on a plastic card, which will replace the paper certificate that was issued in the past. The plastic card certificate will not have an expiration date. Paper certificates issued prior to the new process will still expire according to the date on the certificate; however, under the new process, paper certificates cannot be renewed. Once the paper certificate expires, the Student Pilot must submit a new application under the new process. Another significant change in the new process is that flight instructors will now make endorsements for solo privileges in the Student Pilot’s logbook, instead of endorsing the Student Pilot Certificate.

  To be eligible for a Student Pilot Certificate, the applicant must:

  • Be at least 16 years of age (14 years of age to pilot a glider or balloon).

  • Be able to read, speak, write, and understand the English language.

  Medical Certification Requirements

  The second step in becoming a pilot is to obtain a medical certificate (if the choice of aircraft is an airplane, helicopter, gyroplane, or an airship). (The FAA suggests the individual get a medical certificate before beginning flight training to avoid the expense of flight training that cannot be continued due to a medical condition.) Balloon or glider pilots do not need a medical certificate, but do need to write a statement certifying that no medical defect exists that would prevent them from piloting a balloon or glider. The new sport pilot category does not require a medical examination; a driver’s license can be used as proof of medical competence. Applicants who fail to meet certain requirements or who have physical disabilities which might limit, but not prevent, their acting as pilots, should contact the nearest FAA office. Anyone requesting an FAA Medical Clearance, Medical Certificate, or Student Pilot Medical Certificate can electronically complete an application through the FAA’s MedXPress system available at https://medxpress.faa.gov/.

  A medical certificate is obtained by passing a physical examination administered by a doctor who is an FAA-authorized AME. There are approximately 6,000 FAA-authorized AMEs in the nation. To find an AME near you, go to the FAA’s AME locator at www.faa.gov/pilots/amelocator/. Medical certificates are designated as first class, second class, or third class. Generally, first class is designed for the airline transport pilot; second class for the commercial pilot; and third class for the student, recreational, and private pilot. A Student Pilot Certificate can be processed by an FAA inspector or technician, an FAA Designated pilot examiner (DPE), an Airman Certification Representative (ACR), or a Certified Flight Instructor (CFI). This certificate allows an individual who is being trained by a flight instructor to fly alone (solo) under specific, limited circumstances and must be carried with the student pilot while exercising solo flight privileges. The Student Pilot Certificate is only required when exercising solo flight privileges. The new plastic student certificate does not have an expiration date. For airmen who were issued a paper certificate, that certificate will remain valid until its expiration date. A paper certificate cannot be renewed. When the paper certificate expires, a new application must be completed via the IACRA system, and a new plastic certificate will be issued.

  Student Pilot Solo Requirements

  Once a student has accrued sufficient training and experience, a CFI can endorse the student’s logbook to authorize limited solo flight in a specific type (make and model) of aircraft. A student pilot may not carry passengers, fly in furtherance of a business, or operate an aircraft outside of the various endorsements provided by the flight instructor. There is no minimum aeronautical knowledge or experience requirement for the issuance of a Student Pilot Certificate, however, the applicant must be at least 16 years of age (14 years of age for a pilot for glider or balloon), and they must be able to read, speak, write and understand the English language. There are, however, minimum aeronautical knowledge and experience requirements for student pilots to solo.

  Becoming a Pilot

  The course of instruction a student pilot follows depends on the type of certificate sought. It should include the ground and flight training necessary to acquire the knowledge and skills required to safely and efficiently function as a certificated pilot in the selected category and class of aircraft. The specific knowledge and skill areas for each category and class of aircraft are outlined in 14 CFR part 61. Eligibility, aeronautical knowledge, proficiency, and aeronautical requirements can be found in 14 CFR part 61.

  • Recreational Pilot, see subpart D

  • Private Pilot, see subpart E

  • Sport Pilot, see subpart J

  The knowledge-based portion of training is obtained through FAA handbooks such as this one, textbooks, and other sources of training and testing materials which are available in print form from the Superintendent of Documents, GPO, and online at the Regulatory Support Division: www.faa.gov/about/office_org/headquarters_offices/avs/offices/afs/afs600.

  The CFI may also use commercial publications as a source of study materials, especially for aircraft categories where government materials are limited. A student pilot should follow the flight instructor’s advice on what and when to study. Planning a definite study program and following it as closely as possible will help in scoring well on the knowledge test. Haphazard or disorganized study habits usually result in an unsatisfactory score.

  In addition to learning aeronautical knowledge, such as the principles of flight, a student pilot is also required to gain skill in flight maneuvers. The selected category and class of aircraft determines the type of flight skills and number of flight hours to be obtained. There are four steps involved in learning a flight maneuver:

  • The CFI introduces and demonstrates flight maneuver to the student.

  • The CFI talks the student pilot through the maneuver.

  • The student pilot practices the maneuver under CFI supervision.

  • The CFI authorizes the student pilot to practice the maneuver solo.

  Once the student pilot has shown proficiency in the required knowledge areas, flight maneuvers, and accrued the required amount of flight hours, the CFI endorses the student pilot logbook, which allows the student pilot to take the written and practical tests for pilot certification.

  Knowledge and Skill Tests

  Knowledge Tests

  The knowledge test is the computer portion of the tests taken to obtain pilot certification. The test contains questions of the objective, multiple-choice type. This testing method conserves the applicant’s time, eliminates any element of individual judgment in determining grades, and saves time in scoring.

  FAA Airman Knowledge Test Guides for every type of pilot certificate address most questions you may have regarding the knowledge test process. The guides are available online (free of charge) at http://www.faa.gov/training_testing/testing/test_guides/.

  When To Take the Knowledge Test

  The knowledge test is more meaningful to the applicant and more likely to result in a satisfactory grade if it is taken after beginning the flight portion of the training. Therefore, the FAA rec
ommends the knowledge test be taken after the student pilot has completed a solo cross-country flight. The operational knowledge gained by this experience can be used to the student’s advantage in the knowledge test. The student pilot’s CFI is the best person to determine when the applicant is ready to take the knowledge test.

  Practical Test

  The FAA has developed PTS for FAA pilot certificates and associated ratings. [Figure 1-25] In 2015, the FAA began transitioning to the ACS approach. The ACS is essentially an “enhanced” version of the PTS. It adds task-specific knowledge and risk management elements to each PTS Area of Operation and Task. The result is a holistic, integrated presentation of specific knowledge, skills, and risk management elements and performance metrics for each Area of Operation and Task The ACS evaluation program will eventually replace the PTS program for evaluating and certifying pilots.

  The practical tests are administered by FAA ASIs and DPEs. Title 14 CFR part 61 specifies the areas of operation in which knowledge and skill must be demonstrated by the applicant. Since the FAA requires all practical tests be conducted in accordance with the appropriate PTS and the policies set forth in the Introduction section of the PTS book. The pilot applicant should become familiar with this book during training.

  The PTS book is a testing document and not intended to be a training syllabus. An appropriately-rated flight instructor is responsible for training the pilot applicant to acceptable standards in all subject matter areas, procedures, and maneuvers. Descriptions of tasks and information on how to perform maneuvers and procedures are contained in reference and teaching documents such as this handbook. A list of reference documents is contained in the Introduction section of each PTS book. Copies may obtained by: