Pilot's Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge (Federal Aviation Administration)

by Federal Aviation Administration

  The final decision to act on ATC’s instruction rests with you. If you cannot safely comply with any of ATC’s instructions, inform them immediately by using the word “UNABLE.” There is nothing wrong with telling a controller that you are unable to safely comply with the clearance.

  Another way to mitigate the risk of runway incursions is to write down all taxi instructions as soon as they are received from ATC. [Figure 14-50] It is also helpful to monitor ATC clearances and instructions that are issued to other aircraft. You should be especially vigilant if another aircraft has a similar sounding call sign so there is no mistake about who ATC is contacting or to whom they are giving instructions and clearances.

  Read back your complete ATC clearance with your aircraft call sign. This gives ATC the opportunity to clarify any misunderstandings and ensure that instructions were given to the correct aircraft. If, at any time, there is uncertainty about any ATC instructions or clearances, ask ATC to “say again” or ask for progressive taxi instructions.

  ATC Instructions—“Hold Short”

  The most important sign and marking on the airport is the hold sign and hold marking. These are located on a stub taxiway leading directly to a runway. They depict the holding position or the location where the aircraft is to stop so as not to enter the runway environment. [Figure 14-51] For example, Figure 14-52 shows the holding position sign and marking for Runway 13 and Runway 31.

  When ATC issues a “hold short” clearance, you are expected to taxi up to, but not cross any part of the runway holding marking. At a towered airport, runway hold markings should never be crossed without explicit ATC instructions. Do not enter a runway at a towered airport unless instructions are given from ATC to cross, takeoff from, or “line up and wait” on that specific runway.

  ATC is required to obtain a read-back from the pilot of all runway “hold short” instructions. Therefore, you must read back the entire clearance and “hold short” instruction, to include runway identifier and your call sign.

  Figure 14-50. A sound practice is to write down taxi instructions from ATC.

  Figure 14-51. Do NOT cross a runway holding position marking without ATC clearance. If the tower is closed or you are operating from a non-towered airport, check both directions for conflicting traffic before crossing the hold position marking.

  Figure 14-53 shows an example of a controller’s taxi and “hold short” instructions and the reply from the pilot.

  ATC Instructions—Explicit Runway Crossing

  As of June 30, 2010, ATC is required to issue explicit instructions to “cross” or “hold short” of each runway. Instructions to “cross” a runway are normally issued one at a time, and an aircraft must have crossed the previous runway before another runway crossing is issued. Exceptions may apply for closely spaced runways that have less than 1,000 feet between centerlines. This applies to all runways to include active, inactive, or closed. Figure 14-54 shows communication between ATC and a pilot who is requesting a taxi clearance. Extra caution should be used when directed by ATC to taxi onto or across a runway, especially at night and during reduced visibility conditions. Always comply with “hold short” or crossing instructions when approaching an entrance to a runway. Scan the full length of the runway and the final approaches before entering or crossing any runway, even if ATC has issued a clearance.

  Figure 14-52. Runway 13-31 holding position sign and marking located on Taxiway Charlie.

  Figure 14-53. Example of taxi and “hold short” instructions from ATC to a pilot.

  ATC Instructions—“Line Up and Wait” (LUAW)

  ATC now uses the “line up and wait” (LUAW) instruction when a takeoff clearance cannot be issued immediately due to traffic or other reasons. The words “line up and wait” have replaced “position and hold” in directing you to taxi onto a runway and await takeoff clearance.

  An ATC instruction to “line up and wait” is not a clearance for takeoff. It is only a clearance to enter the runway and hold in position for takeoff. Under LUAW phraseology, the controller states the aircraft call sign, departure runway, and “line up and wait.” Be aware that “traffic holding in position” will continue to be used to advise other aircraft that traffic has been authorized to line up and wait on an active runway. Pay close attention when instructed to “line up and wait,” especially at night or during periods of low visibility. Before entering the runway, remember to scan the full length of the runway and its approach end for other aircraft.

  Figure 14-54. Communication between ATC and a pilot who is requesting taxi procedures.

  There have been collisions and incidents involving aircraft instructed to “line up and wait” while ATC waits for the necessary conditions to issue a takeoff clearance. An OI caused a 737 to land on a runway occupied by a twin-engine turboprop. The turboprop was holding in position awaiting takeoff clearance. Upon landing, the 737 collided with the twin-engine turboprop.

  When ATC instructs you to “line up and wait,” they should advise you of any anticipated delay in receiving your takeoff clearance. Possible reasons for ATC takeoff clearance delays may include other aircraft landing and/or departing, wake turbulence, or traffic crossing an intersecting runway.

  • If advised of a reason for the delay, or the reason is clearly visible, expect an imminent takeoff clearance once the reason is no longer an issue.

  • If a takeoff clearance is not received within 90 seconds after receiving the “line up and wait” instruction, contact ATC immediately.

  • When ATC issues “line up and wait” instructions and takeoff clearances from taxiway intersection, the taxiway designator is included.

  Example – “N123AG Runway One-Eight, at Charlie Three, line up and wait.”

  Example – “N123AG Runway One-Eight, at Charlie Three, cleared for takeoff.”

  If LUAW procedures are being used and landing traffic is a factor, ATC is required to:

  • Inform the aircraft in the LUAW position of the closest aircraft that is requesting a full-stop, touch-and-go, stop-and-go, option, or unrestricted low approach.

  Example – “N123AG, Runway One-Eight, line up and wait, traffic a Cessna 210 on a six-mile final.”

  • In some cases, where safety logic is being used, ATC is permitted to issue landing clearances with traffic in the LUAW position. Traffic information is issued to the landing traffic.

  Example – “N456HK, Runway One-Eight, cleared to land, traffic a DeHavilland Otter holding in position.”

  NOTE: ATC will/must issue a takeoff clearance to the traffic holding in position in sufficient time to ensure no conflict exists with landing aircraft. Prescribed runway separation must exist no later than when the landing aircraft crosses the threshold.

  • In cases where ATC is not permitted to issue landing clearances with traffic in the LUAW position, traffic information is issued to the closest aircraft that is requesting a full-stop, touch-and-go, stop-and-go, option, or unrestricted low approach.

  Example – “N456HK, Runway One-Eight, continue, traffic holding in position.”

  ATC Instructions—“Runway Shortened”

  You should review NOTAMs in your preflight planning to determine any airport changes that will affect your departure or arrival. When the available runway length has been temporarily or permanently shortened due to construction, the ATIS includes the words “warning” and “shortened” in the text of the message. For the duration of the construction when the runway is temporarily shortened, ATC will include the word “shortened” in their clearance instructions. Furthermore, the use of the term “full length” will not be used by ATC during this period of the construction.

  Some examples of ATC instructions are:

  • “Runway three six shortened, line up and wait.”

  • “Runway three six shortened, cleared for takeoff.”

  • “Runway three six shortened, cleared to land.”

  When an intersection departure is requested on a temporarily or permanen
tly shortened runway during the construction, the remaining length of runway is included in the clearance. For example, “Runway three six at Echo, intersection departure, 5,600 feet available.” If following the construction, the runway is permanently shortened, ATC will include the word “shortened” until the Chart Supplement U.S. (formerly Airport/Facility Directory) is updated to include the permanent changes to the runway length.

  Pre-Landing, Landing, and After-Landing

  While en route and after receiving the destination airport ATIS/landing information, review the airport diagram and brief yourself as to your exit taxiway. Determine the following:

  • Are there any runway hold markings in close proximity to the exit taxiway?

  • Do not cross any hold markings or exit onto any runways without ATC clearance.

  After landing, use the utmost caution where the exit taxiways intersect another runway, and do not exit onto another runway without ATC authorization. Do not accept last minute turnoff instructions from the control tower unless you clearly understand the instructions and are at a speed that ensures you can safely comply. Finally, after landing and upon exiting the runway, ensure your aircraft has completely crossed over the runway hold markings. Once all parts of the aircraft have crossed the runway holding position markings, you must hold unless further instructions have been issued by ATC. Do not initiate non-essential communications or actions until the aircraft has stopped and the brakes set.

  Engineered Materials Arresting Systems (EMAS)

  Aircraft can and do overrun the ends of runways and sometimes with devastating results. An overrun occurs when an aircraft passes beyond the end of a runway during an aborted takeoff or on landing rollout. To minimize the hazards of overruns, the FAA incorporated the concept of a runway safety area (RSA) beyond the runway end into airport design standards. At most commercial airports, the RSA is 500 feet wide and extends 1,000 feet beyond each end of the runway. The FAA implemented this requirement in the event that an aircraft overruns, undershoots, or veers off the side of the runway.

  The most dangerous of these incidents are overruns, but since many airports were built before the 1,000-foot RSA length was adopted some 20 years ago, the area beyond the end of the runway is where many airports cannot achieve the full standard RSA. This is due to obstacles, such as bodies of water, highways, railroads, populated areas, or severe drop-off of terrain. Under these specific circumstances, the installation of an Engineered Materials Arresting System (EMAS) is an acceptable alternative to a RSA beyond the runway end. It provides a level of safety that is generally equivalent to a full RSA. [Figure 14-55]

  An EMAS uses materials of closely controlled strength and density placed at the end of a runway to stop or greatly slow an aircraft that overruns the runway. The best material found to date is a lightweight, crushable concrete. When an aircraft rolls into an EMAS arrestor bed, the tires of the aircraft sink into the lightweight concrete and the aircraft is decelerated by having to roll through the material. [Figure 14-56]

  Incidents

  To date, there have been several incidents listed below where the EMAS technology has worked successfully to arrest aircraft that overrun the runway. All cases have resulted in minimal to do damage to the aircraft. The only known injury was an ankle injury to a passenger during egress following the arrestment. [Figure 14-57]

  • May 1999—A Saab 340 commuter aircraft overran the runway at John F. Kennedy International Airport (JFK).

  Figure 14-55. Engineered material arresting system (EMAS) located at Yeager Airport, Charleston, West Virginia.

  • May 2003—A Cargo McDonnell Douglas (MD)-11 overran the runway at JFK.

  • January 2005—A Boeing 747 overran the runway at JFK.

  • July 2006—A Mystere Falcon 900 overran the runway at Greenville Downtown Airport (KGMU) in Greenville, South Carolina.

  • July 2008—An Airbus A320 overran the runway at O’Hare International Airport (ORD).

  • January 2010—A Bombardier CRJ-200 regional jet overran the runway at Yeager Airport (KCRW) in Charleston, West Virginia (WV). [Figure 14-58]

  • October 2010—A G-4 Gulfstream overran the runway at Teterboro Airport (KTEB) in Teterboro, New Jersey (NJ).

  • November 2011—A Cessna Citation 550 overran the runway at Key West International Airport (KEYW) in Key West, Florida.

  EMAS Installations and Information

  Currently, EMAS is installed at 63 runway ends at 42 airports in the United States with plans to install more throughout the next few years.

  EMAS information is available in the Chart Supplement U.S. (formerly Airport/Facility Directory) under the specific airport information. Figure 14-59 shows airport information for Boston Logan International Airport. At the bottom of the page, it shows which runways are equipped with arresting systems and the type that they have. It is important for pilots to study airport information, become familiar with the details and limitations of the arresting system, and the runways that are equipped with them. [Figure 14-60]

  Figure 14-56. Diagram of an EMASMAX system.

  Pilot Considerations

  Although engaging an EMAS should not be a desired outcome for the end of a flight, pilots need to know what EMAS is, how to identify it on the airfield diagram and on the airfield, as well as knowing what to do should they find themselves approaching an installation in an overrun situation. [Figure 14-59 and Figure 14-60] Pilots also need to know that an EMAS may not stop lightweight general aviation aircraft that are not heavy enough to sink into the crushable concrete. The time to discuss whether or not a runway has an EMAS at the end is during the pre-departure briefing prior to takeoff or during the approach briefing prior to commencing the approach. Following the guidance below ensures that the aircraft engages the EMAS according to the design entry parameters.

  During the takeoff or landing phase, if a pilot determines that the aircraft will exit the runway end and enter the EMAS, the following guidance should be adhered to:

  1. Continue deceleration - Regardless of aircraft speed upon exiting the runway, continue to follow Rejected/Aborted Takeoff procedures, or if landing, Maximum Braking procedures outlined in the Flight Manual.

  Figure 14-57. There have been several incidents where the EMAS has successfully arrested the aircraft.

  2. Maintain runway centerline - Not veering left or right of the bed and continuing straight ahead will maximize stopping capability of the EMAS bed. The quality of deceleration will be best within the confines of the bed.

  3. Maintain deceleration efforts - The arrestor bed is a passive system, so this is the only action required by the pilot.

  4. Once stopped, do not attempt to taxi or otherwise move the aircraft.

  Chapter Summary

  This chapter focused on airport operations both in the air and on the surface. For specific information about an unfamiliar airport, consult the Chart Supplement U.S. (formerly Airport/Facility Directory) and NOTAMS before flying. For further information regarding procedures discussed in this chapter, refer to 14 CFR part 91 and the AIM. By adhering to established procedures, both airport operations and safety are enhanced.

  This chapter is also designed to help you attain an understanding of the risks associated with surface navigation and is intended to provide you with basic information regarding the safe operation of aircraft at towered and nontowered airports. This chapter focuses on the following major areas:

  • Runway incursion overview

  • Taxi route planning

  • Taxi procedures

  • Communications

  • Airport signs, markings and lighting

  Figure 14-58. A Bombardier CRJ-200 regional jet overran the runway at Yeager Airport (KCRW) in Charleston, West Virginia.

  The chapter identifies best practices to help you avoid errors that may potentially lead to runway incursions. Although the chapter pertains mostly to surface movements for single-pilot operations, all of the information is relevant for flight crew
operations as well.

  Additional information about surface operations is available through the following sources:

  • Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) Runway Safety website—www.faa.gov/go/runwaysafety

  • FAA National Aeronautical Navigation Services (AeroNav), formerly known as the National Aeronautical Charting Office (NACO)—www.faa.gov/air_traffic/flight_info/aeronav

  • Chart Supplement U.S. (formerly Airport/Facility Directory)—www.faa.gov/air_traffic/flight_info/aeronav/digital_products/dafd/search/

  • Automatic Terminal Information Service (ATIS)

  • Notice to Airmen (NOTAMs)—http://www.faa.gov/pilots/flt_plan/notams

  • Advisory Circular (AC) 91-73, part 91 and part 135, Single-Pilot and Flight School Procedures During Taxi Operations

  • Aeronautical Information Manual (AIM)—www.faa.gov/air_traffic/publications/atpubs/aim/

  • AC 120-74, parts 91, 121, 125, and 135, Flight Crew Procedures During Taxi Operations

  Figure 14-59. EMAS information for Boston Logan International Airport located in the Chart Supplement U.S. (formerly Airport/Facility Directory).

  Figure 14-60. An airport diagram with EMAS information.

  Chapter 15

  Airspace

  Introduction

  The two categories of airspace are: regulatory and nonregulatory. Within these two categories, there are four types: controlled, uncontrolled, special use, and other airspace. The categories and types of airspace are dictated by the complexity or density of aircraft movements, nature of the operations conducted within the airspace, the level of safety required, and national and public interest. Figure 15-1 presents a profile view of the dimensions of various classes of airspace. Also, there are excerpts from sectional charts that are discussed in Chapter 16, Navigation, that are used to illustrate how airspace is depicted.