Pilot's Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge (Federal Aviation Administration)

by Federal Aviation Administration

  While the use of hand-held GPS receivers for VFR operations is not limited by regulation, modification of the aircraft, such as installing a panel- or yoke-mounted holder, is governed by 14 CFR part 43. Pilots should consult a mechanic to ensure compliance with the regulation and a safe installation.

  Tips for Using GPS for VFR Operations

  Always check to see if the unit has RAIM capability. If no RAIM capability exists, be suspicious of a GPS displayed position when any disagreement exists with the position derived from other radio navigation systems, pilotage, or dead reckoning.

  Check the currency of the database, if any. If expired, update the database using the current revision. If an update of an expired database is not possible, disregard any moving map display of airspace for critical navigation decisions. Be aware that named waypoints may no longer exist or may have been relocated since the database expired. At a minimum, the waypoints to be used should be verified against a current official source, such as the Chart Supplement U.S. or a Sectional Aeronautical Chart.

  While a hand-held GPS receiver can provide excellent navigation capability to VFR pilots, be prepared for intermittent loss of navigation signal, possibly with no RAIM warning to the pilot. If mounting the receiver in the aircraft, be sure to comply with 14 CFR part 43.

  Plan flights carefully before taking off. If navigating to user-defined waypoints, enter them prior to flight, not on the fly. Verify the planned flight against a current source, such as a current sectional chart. There have been cases in which one pilot used waypoints created by another pilot that were not where the pilot flying was expecting. This generally resulted in a navigation error. Minimize head-down time in the aircraft and maintain a sharp lookout for traffic, terrain, and obstacles. Just a few minutes of preparation and planning on the ground makes a great difference in the air.

  Another way to minimize head-down time is to become very familiar with the receiver’s operation. Most receivers are not intuitive. The pilot must take the time to learn the various keystrokes, knob functions, and displays that are used in the operation of the receiver. Some manufacturers provide computer-based tutorials or simulations of their receivers. Take the time to learn about the particular unit before using it in flight.

  In summary, be careful not to rely on GPS to solve all VFR navigational problems. Unless an IFR receiver is installed in accordance with IFR requirements, no standard of accuracy or integrity can be assured. While the practicality of GPS is compelling, the fact remains that only the pilot can navigate the aircraft, and GPS is just one of the pilot’s tools to do the job.

  VFR Waypoints

  VFR waypoints provide VFR pilots with a supplementary tool to assist with position awareness while navigating visually in aircraft equipped with area navigation receivers. VFR waypoints should be used as a tool to supplement current navigation procedures. The use of VFR waypoints include providing navigational aids for pilots unfamiliar with an area, waypoint definition of existing reporting points, enhanced navigation in and around Class B and Class C airspace, and enhanced navigation around Special Use Airspace. VFR pilots should rely on appropriate and current aeronautical charts published specifically for visual navigation. If operating in a terminal area, pilots should take advantage of the Terminal Area Chart available for the area, if published. The use of VFR waypoints does not relieve the pilot of any responsibility to comply with the operational requirements of 14 CFR part 91.

  VFR waypoint names (for computer entry and flight plans) consist of five letters beginning with the letters “VP” and are retrievable from navigation databases. The VFR waypoint names are not intended to be pronounceable, and they are not for use in ATC communications. On VFR charts, a stand-alone VFR waypoint is portrayed using the same four-point star symbol used for IFR waypoints. VFR waypoint collocated with a visual checkpoint on the chart is identified by a small magenta flag symbol. A VFR waypoint collocated with a visual checkpoint is pronounceable based on the name of the visual checkpoint and may be used for ATC communications. Each VFR waypoint name appears in parentheses adjacent to the geographic location on the chart. Latitude/longitude data for all established VFR waypoints may be found in the appropriate regional Chart Supplement U.S.

  When filing VFR flight plans, use the five-letter identifier as a waypoint in the route of flight section if there is an intended course change at that point or if used to describe the planned route of flight. This VFR filing would be similar to VOR use in a route of flight. Pilots must use the VFR waypoints only when operating under VFR conditions.

  Any VFR waypoints intended for use during a flight should be loaded into the receiver while on the ground and prior to departure. Once airborne, pilots should avoid programming routes or VFR waypoint chains into their receivers.

  Pilots should be especially vigilant for other traffic while operating near VFR waypoints. The same effort to see and avoid other aircraft near VFR waypoints is necessary, as is the case when operating near VORs and NDBs. In fact, the increased accuracy of navigation through the use of GPS demands even greater vigilance as there are fewer off-course deviations among different pilots and receivers. When operating near a VFR waypoint, use all available ATC services, even if outside a class of airspace where communications are required. Regardless of the class of airspace, monitor the available ATC frequency closely for information on other aircraft operating in the vicinity. It is also a good idea to turn on landing light(s) when operating near a VFR waypoint to make the aircraft more conspicuous to other pilots, especially when visibility is reduced.

  Lost Procedures

  Getting lost in flight is a potentially dangerous situation, especially when low on fuel. If a pilot becomes lost, there are some good common sense procedures to follow. If a town or city cannot be seen, the first thing to do is climb, being mindful of traffic and weather conditions. An increase in altitude increases radio and navigation reception range and also increases radar coverage. If flying near a town or city, it may be possible to read the name of the town on a water tower.

  If the aircraft has a navigational radio, such as a VOR or ADF receiver, it can be possible to determine position by plotting an azimuth from two or more navigational facilities. If GPS is installed, or a pilot has a portable aviation GPS on board, it can be used to determine the position and the location of the nearest airport.

  Communicate with any available facility using frequencies shown on the sectional chart. If contact is made with a controller, radar vectors may be offered. Other facilities may offer direction finding (DF) assistance. To use this procedure, the controller requests the pilot to hold down the transmit button for a few seconds and then release it. The controller may ask the pilot to change directions a few times and repeat the transmit procedure. This gives the controller enough information to plot the aircraft position and then give vectors to a suitable landing site. If the situation becomes threatening, transmit the situation on the emergency frequency 121.5 MHz and set the transponder to 7700. Most facilities, and even airliners, monitor the emergency frequency.

  Flight Diversion

  There may come a time when a pilot is not able to make it to the planned destination. This can be the result of unpredicted weather conditions, a system malfunction, or poor preflight planning. In any case, the pilot needs to be able to safely and efficiently divert to an alternate destination. Risk management procedures become a priority during any type of flight diversion and should be used the pilot. For example, the hazards of inadvertent VFR into IMC involve a risk that the pilot can identify and assess and then mitigate through a pre-planned or in-flight diversion around hazardous weather. Before any cross-country flight, check the charts for airports or suitable landing areas along or near the route of flight. Also, check for navigational aids that can be used during a diversion. Risk management is explained in greater detail in Chapter 2, Aeronautical Decision-making.

  Computing course, time, speed, and distance information in flight requires the same computati
ons used during preflight planning. However, because of the limited flight deck space and because attention must be divided between flying the aircraft, making calculations, and scanning for other aircraft, take advantage of all possible shortcuts and rule-of-thumb computations.

  When in flight, it is rarely practical to actually plot a course on a sectional chart and mark checkpoints and distances. Furthermore, because an alternate airport is usually not very far from your original course, actual plotting is seldom necessary.

  The course to an alternate destination can be measured accurately with a protractor or plotter but can also be measured with reasonable accuracy using a straightedge and the compass rose depicted around VOR stations. This approximation can be made on the basis of a radial from a nearby VOR or an airway that closely parallels the course to your alternate destination. However, remember that the magnetic heading associated with a VOR radial or printed airway is outbound from the station. To find the course to the station, it may be necessary to determine the reciprocal of that heading. It is typically easier to navigate to an alternate airport that has a VOR or NDB facility on the field.

  After selecting the most appropriate alternate destination, approximate the magnetic course to the alternate using a compass rose or airway on the sectional chart. If time permits, try to start the diversion over a prominent ground feature.

  However, in an emergency, divert promptly toward your alternate destination. Attempting to complete all plotting, measuring, and computations involved before diverting to the alternate destination may only aggravate an actual emergency.

  Once established on course, note the time, and then use the winds aloft nearest to your diversion point to calculate a heading and GS. Once a GS has been calculated, determine a new arrival time and fuel consumption. Give priority to flying the aircraft while dividing attention between navigation and planning. When determining an altitude to use while diverting, consider cloud heights, winds, terrain, and radio reception.

  Chapter Summary

  This chapter has discussed the fundamentals of VFR navigation. Beginning with an introduction to the charts that can be used for navigation to the more technically advanced concept of GPS, there is one aspect of navigation that remains the same—the pilot is responsible for proper planning and the execution of that planning to ensure a safe flight.

  Chapter 17

  Aeromedical Factors

  Introduction

  It is important for a pilot to be aware of the mental and physical standards required for the type of flying performed. This chapter provides information on medical certification and on a variety of aeromedical factors related to flight activities.

  Obtaining a Medical Certificate

  Most pilots must have a valid medical certificate to exercise the privileges of their airman certificates. Glider and free balloon pilots are not required to hold a medical certificate. Sport pilots may hold either a medical certificate or a valid state driver’s license. Regardless of whether a medical certificate or drivers license is required, 14 CFR 61.53 requires every pilot not to act as a crewmember if they know, or have reason to know, of any medical condition that would make them unable to operate the aircraft in a safe manner.

  Acquisition of a medical certificate requires an examination by an aviation medical examiner (AME), a physician with training in aviation medicine designated by the Civil Aerospace Medical Institute (CAMI). There are three classes of medical certificates. The class of certificate needed depends on the type of flying the pilot plans to perform.

  A third-class medical certificate is required for a private or recreational pilot certificate. It is valid for 5 years for those individuals who have not reached the age of 40; otherwise it is valid for 2 years. A commercial pilot certificate requires at least a second-class medical certificate, which is valid for 1 year. First-class medical certificates are required for airline transport pilots and are valid for one year if the airman is 40 or younger; 40 and older it is valid for 6 months.

  The standards are more rigorous for the higher classes of certificates. A pilot with a higher class medical certificate has met the requirements for the lower classes as well. Since the required medical class applies only when exercising the privileges of the pilot certificate for which it is required, a first-class medical certificate would be valid for 1 year if exercising the privileges of a commercial certificate and 2 or 5 years, as appropriate, for exercising the privileges of a private or recreational certificate. The same applies for a second-class medical certificate. The standards for medical certification are contained in Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations (14 CFR) part 67 and the requirements for obtaining medical certificates can be found in 14 CFR part 61.

  Students who have physical limitations, such as impaired vision, loss of a limb, or hearing impairment may be issued a medical certificate valid for “student pilot privileges only” while learning to fly. Pilots with disabilities may require special equipment to be installed in the aircraft, such as hand controls for pilots with paraplegia. Some disabilities necessitate a limitation on the individual’s certificate; for example, impaired hearing would require the limitation “not valid for flight requiring the use of radio.” When all the knowledge, experience, and proficiency requirements have been met and a student can demonstrate the ability to operate the aircraft with the normal level of safety, a “statement of demonstrated ability” (SODA) can be issued. This waiver, or SODA, is valid as long as the physical impairment does not worsen. Contact the local Flight Standards District Office (FSDO) for more information on this subject.

  The FAA medical standards, 14 CFR part 67, specify fifteen medical conditions that are considered disqualifying by “history or clinical diagnosis.” Regardless of when one of these conditions was diagnosed and treated, an airman may not be issued a medical certificate except through a process called a “Special Issuance Authorization,” as explained in 14 CFR part 67, section 67.401. A special issuance is a discretionary issuance by the FAA Federal Air Surgeon and requires satisfactory completion of special testing determined by the FAA to demonstrate that an airman is safe to fly for the duration of the medical certificate issued. The specific disqualifying conditions include:

  • Diabetes mellitus requiring oral hypoglycemic medication or insulin

  • Angina pectoris

  • Coronary heart disease that has been treated or, if untreated, that has been symptomatic or clinically significant

  • Myocardial infarction

  • Cardiac valve replacement

  • Permanent cardiac pacemaker

  • Heart replacement

  • Psychosis

  • Bipolar disorder

  • Personality disorder that is severe enough to have repeatedly manifested itself by overt acts

  • Substance dependence (including alcohol)

  • Substance abuse

  • Epilepsy

  • Disturbance of consciousness and without satisfactory explanation of cause

  • Transient loss of control of nervous system function(s) without satisfactory explanation of cause

  However, this list includes only the mandatory disqualifying conditions. There are many other medical conditions that fall into the General Medical Condition section of the regulations that are considered by the FAA to be disqualifying even though they are not stated in the regulations. Conditions such as cancer, kidney stones, neurologic and neuromuscular conditions including Parkinson’s disease and multiple sclerosis, certain blood disorders, and other conditions that may progress over time require review by the FAA before a medical certificate may be issued.

  The important thing to remember is that with very few exceptions, all disqualifying medical conditions may be considered for special issuance. If you can present satisfactory medical documentation to the FAA that your condition is stable, the chances are good that you will be able to qualify for an Authorization.

  Health and Physiological Factors Affecting Pilot Performance
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br />   A number of health factors and physiological effects can be linked to flying. Some are minor, while others are important enough to require special attention to ensure safety of flight. In some cases, physiological factors can lead to inflight emergencies. Some important medical factors that a pilot should be aware of include hypoxia, hyperventilation, middle ear and sinus problems, spatial disorientation, motion sickness, carbon monoxide (CO) poisoning, stress and fatigue, dehydration, and heatstroke. Other subjects include the effects of alcohol and drugs, anxiety, and excess nitrogen in the blood after scuba diving.

  Hypoxia

  Hypoxia means “reduced oxygen” or “not enough oxygen.” Although any tissue will die if deprived of oxygen long enough, the greatest concern regarding hypoxia during flight is lack of oxygen to the brain, since it is particularly vulnerable to oxygen deprivation. Any reduction in mental function while flying can result in life-threatening errors. Hypoxia can be caused by several factors, including an insufficient supply of oxygen, inadequate transportation of oxygen, or the inability of the body tissues to use oxygen. The forms of hypoxia are based on their causes:

  • Hypoxic hypoxia

  • Hypemic hypoxia

  • Stagnant hypoxia

  • Histotoxic hypoxia

  Hypoxic Hypoxia

  Hypoxic hypoxia is a result of insufficient oxygen available to the body as a whole. A blocked airway and drowning are obvious examples of how the lungs can be deprived of oxygen, but the reduction in partial pressure of oxygen at high altitude is an appropriate example for pilots. Although the percentage of oxygen in the atmosphere is constant, its partial pressure decreases proportionately as atmospheric pressure decreases. As an aircraft ascends during flight, the percentage of each gas in the atmosphere remains the same, but there are fewer molecules available at the pressure required for them to pass between the membranes in the respiratory system. This decrease in number of oxygen molecules at sufficient pressure can lead to hypoxic hypoxia.