Pilot's Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge (Federal Aviation Administration)

by Federal Aviation Administration

  Figure 17-18. Scanning techniques.

  Figure 17-19. Off-center viewing.

  Sunglasses

  If a night flight is scheduled, pilots and crew members should wear neutral density (N-15) sunglasses or equivalent filter lenses when exposed to bright sunlight. This precaution increases the rate of dark adaptation at night and improves night visual sensitivity.

  Oxygen Supply

  Unaided night vision depends on optimum function and sensitivity of the rods of the retina. Lack of oxygen to the rods (hypoxia) significantly reduces their sensitivity. Sharp clear vision (with the best being equal to 20–20 vision) requires significant oxygen especially at night. Without supplemental oxygen, an individual’s night vision declines measurably at pressure altitudes above 4,000 feet. As altitude increases, the available oxygen decreases, degrading night vision. Compounding the problem is fatigue, which minimizes physiological well being. Adding fatigue to high altitude exposure is a recipe for disaster. In fact, if flying at night at an altitude of 12,000 feet, the pilot may actually see elements of his or her normal vision missing or not in focus. Missing visual elements resemble the missing pixels in a digital image while unfocused vision is dim and washed out.

  For the pilot suffering the effects of hypoxic hypoxia, a simple descent to a lower altitude may not be sufficient to reestablish vision. For example, a climb from 8,000 feet to 12,000 feet for 30 minutes does not mean a descent to 8,000 feet will rectify the problem. Visual acuity may not be regained for over an hour. Thus, it is important to remember, altitude and fatigue have a profound effect on a pilot’s ability to see.

  High Intensity Lighting

  If, during the flight, any high intensity lighting areas are encountered, attempt to turn the aircraft away and fly in the periphery of the lighted area. This will not expose the eyes to such a large amount of light all at once. If possible, plan your route to avoid direct over flight of built-up, brightly lit areas.

  Flightdeck Lighting

  Flightdeck lighting should be kept as low as possible so that the light does not monopolize night vision. After reaching the desired flight altitude, pilots should allow time to adjust to the flight conditions. This includes readjustment of instrument lights and orientation to outside references. During the adjustment period, night vision should continue to improve until optimum night adaptation is achieved. When it is necessary to read maps, charts, and checklists, use a dim white light flashlight and avoid shining it in your or any other crewmember’s eyes.

  Airfield Precautions

  Often time, pilots have no say in how airfield operations are handled, but listed below are some precautions that can be taken to make night flying safer and help protect night vision.

  • Airfield lighting should be reduced to the lowest usable intensity.

  • Maintenance personnel should practice light discipline with headlights and flashlights.

  • Position the aircraft at a part of the airfield where the least amount of lighting exists.

  • Select approach and departure routes that avoid highways and residential areas where illumination can impair night vision.

  Self-Imposed Stress

  Night flight can be more fatiguing and stressful than day flight, and many self-imposed stressors can limit night vision. Pilots can control this type of stress by knowing the factors that can cause self-imposed stressors. Some of these factors are listed in the following paragraphs. [Figure 17-20]

  Drugs

  Drugs can seriously degrade visual acuity during the day and especially at night. Pilots who become ill should consult an aviation medical examiner (AME) or flight surgeon as to which drugs are appropriate to take while flying.

  Exhaustion

  Pilots who become fatigued during a night flight will not be mentally alert and will respond more slowly to situations requiring immediate action. Exhausted pilots tend to concentrate on one aspect of a situation without considering the total requirement. Their performance may become a safety hazard depending on the degree of fatigue and instead of using proper scanning techniques may get fixated on the instruments or stare off rather than multitask.

  Poor Physical Conditioning

  To overcome poor physical conditioning, pilots should participate in regular exercise programs. People who are physically fit become less fatigued during flight and have better night scanning efficiency. However, too much exercise in a given day may leave crew members too fatigued for night flying.

  Alcohol

  Alcohol is a sedative and its use impairs both coordination and judgment. As a result, pilots who are impaired by alcohol fail to apply the proper techniques of night vision. They are likely to stare at objects and to neglect scanning techniques. The amount of alcohol consumed determines the degree to which night vision is affected. The effects of alcohol are long lasting and the residual effects of alcohol can also impair visual scanning efficiency.

  Tobacco

  Of all the self-imposed stressors, cigarette smoking most decreases visual sensitivity at night. Smoking significantly increases the amount of carbon monoxide carried by the hemoglobin in red blood cells. This reduces the blood’s capacity to combine with oxygen, so less oxygen is carried in the blood. Hypoxia caused by carbon monoxide poisoning affects peripheral vision and dark adaptation. The results are the same as those for hypoxia caused by high altitude. Smoking 3 cigarettes in rapid succession or 20 to 30 cigarettes within a 24-hour period may saturate from 8 to 10 percent of the capacity of hemoglobin. Smokers lose 20 percent of their night vision capability at sea level, which is equal to a physiological altitude of 5,000 feet.

  Figure 17-20. Self-imposed stress.

  Hypoglycemia and Nutritional Deficiency

  Missing or postponing meals can cause low blood sugar, which impairs night flight performance. Low blood sugar levels may result in stomach contractions, distraction, breakdown in habit pattern, and a shortened attention span. Likewise, an insufficient consumption of vitamin A may also impair night vision. Foods high in vitamin A include eggs, butter, cheese, liver, apricots, peaches, carrots, squash, spinach, peas, and most types of greens. High quantities of vitamin A do not increase night vision but a lack of vitamin A certainly impairs it.

  Distance Estimation and Depth Perception

  Knowledge of the mechanisms and cues affecting distance estimation and depth perception assist pilots in judging distances at night. These cues may be monocular or binocular. The monocular cues that aid in distance estimation and depth perception include motion parallax, geometric perspective, retinal image size, and aerial perspective.

  Motion Parallax

  Motion parallax refers to the apparent motion of stationary objects as viewed by an observer moving across the landscape. When the pilot or crewmember looks outside the aircraft perpendicular to the direction of travel, near objects appear to move backward, past, or opposite the path of motion; far objects seem to move in the direction of motion or remain fixed. The rate of apparent movement depends on the distance the observer is from the object.

  Geometric Perspective

  An object may appear to have a different shape when viewed at varying distances and from different angles. Geometric perspective cues include linear perspective, apparent foreshortening, and vertical position in the field.

  • Linear perspective—parallel lines, such as runway lights, power lines and railroad tracks, tend to converge as distance from the observer increases. [Figure 17-21A]

  • Apparent foreshortening—the true shape of an object or a terrain feature appears elliptical when viewed from a distance. [Figure 17-21B]

  • Vertical position in the field—objects or terrain features farther away from the observer appear higher on the horizon than those closer to the observer. [Figure 17-21C]

  Aerial Perspective

  The clarity of an object and the shadow cast by it are perceived by the brain and are cues for estimating distance. Subtle variations in color or shade are clearer the closer the obse
rver is to an object. However, as distance increases, these distinctions may become blurry. The same applies to an object detail or texture. As a person gets farther from an object, its discrete details become less apparent. Another important fact to remember while flying at night is that every object casts a shadow from a light source. The direction in which the shadow is cast depends on the position of the light source. If the shadow of an object is cast toward the observer, the object is closer than the light source is to the observer.

  Binocular Cues

  Binocular cues of an object are dependent upon the slightly different viewing angle of each eye of an object. Binocular perception is useful only when the object is close enough to make an obvious difference in the viewing angle of both eyes. In the flight environment, most distances outside the cockpit are so great that binocular cues are of little, if any, value. In addition, binocular cues operate on a more subconscious level than monocular cues and are performed automatically.

  Night Vision Illusions

  There are many different types of visual illusions that commonly occur at night. Anticipating and maintaining awareness of them is usually the best way to avoid them.

  Autokinesis

  Autokinesis is caused by staring at a single point of light against a dark background for more than a few seconds. After a few moments, the light appears to move on its own. Apparent movement of the light source will begin in about 8 to 10 seconds. To prevent this illusion, focus the eyes on objects at varying distances and avoid fixating on one source of light. This illusion can be eliminated or reduced by visual scanning, by increasing the number of lights, or by varying the light intensity. The most important of the three solutions is visual scanning. A light or lights should not be stared at for more than 10 seconds.

  False Horizon

  A false horizon can occur when the natural horizon is obscured or not readily apparent. It can be generated by confusing bright stars and city lights. It can also occur while flying toward the shore of an ocean or a large lake. Because of the relative darkness of the water, the lights along the shoreline can be mistaken for stars in the sky. [Figure 17-22]

  Reversible Perspective Illusion

  At night, an aircraft may appear to be moving away from a second aircraft when it is, in fact, approaching a second aircraft. This illusion often occurs when an aircraft is flying parallel to another’s course. To determine the direction of flight, pilots should observe aircraft lights and their relative position to the horizon. If the intensity of the lights increases, the aircraft is approaching; if the lights dim, the aircraft is moving away.

  Figure 17-21. Geometric perspective.

  Figure 17-22. At night, the horizon may be hard to discern due to dark terrain and misleading light patterns on the ground.

  Size-Distance Illusion

  This illusion results from viewing a source of light that is increasing or decreasing in luminance (brightness). Pilots may interpret the light as approaching or retreating.

  Fascination (Fixation)

  This illusion occurs when pilots ignore orientation cues and fix their attention on a goal or an object. Student pilots tend to have this happen when they are concentrating on the aircraft instruments or attempting to land. They become fixated on one task and forget to look at what is going on around them. At night, this can be especially dangerous because aircraft ground-closure rates are difficult to determine, and there may be minimal time to correct the situation.

  Flicker Vertigo

  A light flickering at a rate between 4 and 20 cycles per second can produce unpleasant and dangerous reactions. Such conditions as nausea, vomiting, and vertigo may occur. On rare occasions, convulsions and unconsciousness may also occur. Proper scanning techniques at night can prevent pilots from getting flicker vertigo.

  Night Landing Illusions

  Landing illusions occur in many forms. Above featureless terrain at night, there is a natural tendency to fly a lower-than-normal approach. Elements that cause any type of visual obscurities, such as rain, haze, or a dark runway environment, can also cause low approaches. Bright lights, steep surrounding terrain, and a wide runway can produce the illusion of being too low with a tendency to fly a higher-than-normal approach. A set of regularly spaced lights along a road or highway can appear to be runway lights. Pilots have even mistaken the lights on moving trains as runway or approach lights. Bright runway or approach lighting systems can create the illusion that the aircraft is closer to the runway, especially where few lights illuminate the surrounding terrain.

  Prior to flying at night, it is best to learn and know the challenges of the area in which you are flying in. Study the area and know how to navigate your way through areas that may pose a problem at night. For example, many areas near water may be obscured by low lying clouds or fog. To help deal with this type of situation, it is important to have a plan before you leave the ground. In the daytime, fly the routes and passes that you will be flying at night and determine the minimum altitude you are willing to use at night. If weather prevents you from maintaining the altitude that you planned, make a decision early to turn 180° and land at an alternate airport with better weather conditions. Always consider safer alternatives rather than hope things will work out by taking a chance.

  Pilots who fly at night should strongly consider oxygen supplementation at altitudes and times not required by the FAA, especially at night when critical judgment and hand-eye coordination is necessary (e.g., IFR) or if he/she is a smoker or not perfectly healthy.

  Enhanced Night Vision Systems

  Synthetic Vision Systems (SVS) and Enhanced Flight Vision Systems (EFVS) are two systems that can improve the safety of flight at night. The technology of both is evolving rapidly and being used more and more. [Figure 17-23]

  Figure 17-23. Synthetic and enhanced vision systems.

  Synthetic Vision System

  A Synthetic Vision System (SVS) is an electronic means to display a synthetic vision image of the external scene topography to the flight crew. [Figure 17-24] It is not a real-time image like that produced by an EFVS. Unlike EFVS, SVS requires a terrain and obstacle database, a precise navigation solution, and a display. The terrain image is based on the use of data from a Digital Elevation Model (DEM) that is stored within the SVS. With SVS, the synthetic terrain/vision image is intended to enhance pilot awareness of spatial position relative to important features in all visibility conditions. This is particularly useful during critical phases of flight, such as takeoff, approach, and landing, where important features, such as terrain, obstacles, runways, and landmarks, may be depicted on the SVS display. [Figure 17-25] During approach operations, the obvious advantages of SVS are that the digital terrain image remains on the pilot’s display regardless of how poor the visibility is outside.

  Figure 17-24. SVS system.

  An SVS image can be displayed on either a head-down display or head-up display (HUD); however, to date, SVS has only been certified on head-down displays. Development efforts to display a synthetic image on a HUD are currently underway as are efforts that would combine SVS with a real-time sensor image produced by an EFVS. These systems are known as Combined Vision Systems. While SVS is currently certified as an aid to situation awareness only, the FAA and aviation industry are working on defining operational concepts and airworthiness criteria that would enable SVS to be used for operational credit in certain low visibility conditions. Other future enhancements to SVS displays could include integrating ADS-B to display traffic information.

  Enhanced Flight Vision System

  Enhanced Vision (EV) or Enhanced Flight Vision System (EFVS) is an electronic means to provide a display of the external scene by use of an imaging sensor, such as a Forward-Looking InfraRed (FLIR) or millimeter wave radar (MMWR). In 2004, 14 CFR part 91, section 91.175 was amended to reflect that operators conducting straight-in instrument approach procedures (in other than Category II or Category III operations) may now operate below the published decision height (DH)
or minimum descent altitude (MDA) when using an approved EFVS shown on the pilot’s HUD. This rule change provides “operational credit” for EV equipage. No such credit exists for SV.

  Figure 17-25. Night time SVS system.

  Chapter Summary

  This chapter provides an introduction to aeromedical factors relating to flight activities. More detailed information on the subjects discussed in this chapter is available in the Aeronautical Information Manual (AIM) and online at www.faa.gov.

  Appendix A

  Performance Data for Cessna Model 172R and Challenger 605

  Short Field Takeoff Distance at 2,450 Pounds for a Cessna Model 172R

  Time, Fuel, and Distance to Climb at 2,450 Pounds for a Cessna Model 172R

  Cruise Performance for a Cessna Model 172R

  Short Field Landing Distance at 2,450 Pounds for a Cessna Model 172R

  Challenger 605 Range/Payload Profile

  Challenger 605 Time and Fuel Versus Distance

  Challenger 605 Time and Fuel Versus Distance

  Appendix B

  Acronyms, Abbreviations, and NOTAM Contractions