Amy T Peterson, Valerie Hewitt, Heather Vaughan, et al
Page 26
lished for decades, the demand for sportswear provided the impetus for
the growth of the ready-to-wear industry. Low-cost, stylish wardrobes
were needed by both men and women to attend horse races, football
games, and other outdoor sporting events.
Another major contributing factor to the growth of the ready-to-wear
industry in the 1920s was the working woman. Women were now enter-
ing the workforce in increasing numbers and needed an affordable ward-
robe. Working women did not have time for home sewing or to visit a
seamstress for fittings, thus ready-to-wear apparel was the ideal choice for
the ‘ working girl.’’ Dresses, skirts, jackets, and tops could all be purchased
as separates or coordinates, allowing working women to create a ‘ mix-
and-match’ versatile wardrobe for work and play.
Perhaps the single most important factor that impacted the growth of
the ready-to-wear market was the change in silhouette and undergarments
that occurred in the 1920s. Whereby the fashionable silhouette in previous
decades required elaborate support structures to create bustles and mono-
bosoms, the tubular silhouette of the 1920s required only a simple slip,
brassiere, and drawers. The silhouette and fit were simple and required
minimal engineering of pattern pieces to create high-quality, attractive,
well-fitting garments. The simple designs were well suited to mass manu-
facturing on the new cutting, pressing, buttonhole, and hemming
machines, eliminating the need for hand sewing and treadle machines. Pro-
ductivity was increased, although overall costs were decreased using assem-
bly line techniques, allowing fashionable clothing to be produced at price
points that could be afforded by all socioeconomic classes of society.
America led the charge in manufacturing and developed a new type of
couturier, the fashion designer. These designers were employed by either
department stores or manufacturers to develop apparel lines targeting the
new middle class who demanded comfortable, affordable, high-quality
ready-to-wear clothing. American designers began as ‘ knockoff artists,’’
making line-for-line copies of Paris originals. Retailers and manufacturers
would employ artists and designers to attend the Paris fashion shows,
who, in turn, were charged with memorizing every detail of a single dress.
After the show, the artist or designer would sketch all the details, and the
sketch would be translated to a garment, sold as a ‘‘French import’ in
retail establishments. By the 1930s, the change in the economic climate of
Ready to Wear
157
America meant that American designers no longer had the funds to visit
Paris for shows and began to rely less and less on Paris for fashion influ-
ence. American designers began creating their own designs rather than
knocking off Paris trends. American designers, such as Adrian, Claire
McCardell, Norman Norell, Valentina, and Adele Simpson, were among
the new class of designers who established the American fashion industry
in New York City in the 1920s and 1930s. Although American designers
may have looked to Paris for overall silhouette and trend, their interpreta-
tions were uniquely American: casual, simple, and comfortable.
1940S
Better methods of large-scale production resulted from experience gained
during the war, when rapid mass production of uniforms was necessary.
The clothing industry was changed forever by innovations such as eco-
nomical cutting, using materials in different ways, better mechanized
methods of large-scale production, and the scientific discoveries of new
manmade materials.
Garment production for soldiers during the war resulted in increased
efficiency, lower cost, and standardization in quality and sizes. Mass pro-
duction of clothing became the way of the market after the war. Once
rations were lifted, the nation that saved together was ready to spend on
items for which they had done without for so long. Ready-to-wear cloth-
ing was no longer considered a second-class choice but a necessity to be
fashionable. It was often referred to by the French term pr^et-a-porter.
Rationing along with strict wartime regulations ensured that manufac-
turers would create garments in a quick, efficient, and economic manner
that achieved a standard of quality control at the same time. Mass-produced
garments offered through mail-order companies such as Sears, Spiegel, and
Montgomery Ward became popular, because very few people were able to
pay the high prices for high fashion during the war and reconstruction.
Designers such as Claire McCardell began producing ready-made day-
wear and sportswear for the common American woman believing in free-
dom, democracy, and casualness. Although her designs with their
simplicity and modern lines seemed radical at first, women liked the fit
and comfort of her garments. American designers, such as McCardell and
Norman Norell, led the way in work and leisure wear, combining stylish-
ness and practicality.
Perhaps inspired by the government’s mandate to ration fabric, Ameri-
can designers introduced the concept of separates. By coordinating skirts,
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THE BUSINESS OF FASHION
slacks, sweaters, and jackets, it gave the illusion of more outfits and a
larger wardrobe. Classic sportswear styles became popular on college cam-
puses and soon were adopted by society at large.
R E TA I L O P E R AT I O N S
1900S AND 1910S
Early in the twentieth century, tailor shops and seamstresses proliferated
in most urban areas and provided custom-made clothing and alterations
of store-purchased garments. Both large and small urban areas had a vari-
ety of small, boutique clothing shops. Many of them were family owned.
Some offered only men’s wear, only women’s wear, or only children’s wear,
whereas others catered to entire families. There were many specialty shops
for accessories such as jewelry or footwear. Some shops specialized in used
clothing, whereas others specialized in imported clothing.
Department stores owners built magnificent, multistory stores with
ornate decor. These elaborate stores were often described as shopping
‘ palaces’’ and became destinations for family outings. Department stores
were located in the heart of urban shopping areas and gathered together
all of a family’s shopping needs under one roof. As the department stores
became more popular, they created multiple branch stores. For example,
J.C. Penney had thirty-six Golden Rule Stores by 1913. The stores’ name
was later changed to J.C. Penney’s.
Although department stores had long offered installment plans for
big-ticket items, they began offering credit plans for smaller purchases
such as clothes. They often advertised credit plans for clothing, especially
winter clothing. It was a necessity when the weather turned cold, but
many times people had not saved up to purchase new coats, sweaters, and
warmer clothes.
People who lived outside of cities purchased their clothing at local
; dry goods stores or through mail-order catalogs. Sears Roebuck and
Montgomery Ward’s businesses were built on mail orders well before they
established physical stores.
1920S AND 1930S
The economic boom that swept America after WWI created a high
demand for consumer goods such as automobiles, radios, home appliances,
and telephones, not to mention fashionable apparel, especially for working
women. By 1920, nearly 9 million women were working in the United
Retail Operations
159
States (Tortora and Eubank 2005,
355), and they demanded professional
attire for work, dresses for evening,
and sportswear for weekend outings.
Department stores provided all the
latest New York and Paris fashions for
women with the disposable income to
acquire fashionable dress. Upscale
department stores in major urban cen-
ters, such as Marshall Field’s, Macy’s,
Henri Bendel, Bonwit Teller, and
Nordstrom, also employed in-house
designers for private-label goods as
well as purchased Paris models (or
samples) for reproduction. Parisian
goods, whether a dress or stockings,
were the ultimate status symbol for
the upper and middle classes, and a
retailer only had to advertising carry-
ing the ‘ latest Paris imports’’ to pro-
duce a crowded store. In addition to
ready-to-wear clothing departments,
the best stores also featured custom-
made and import departments for
An example of the marcel wave, still popular in 1934. [Library
women’s fashions. Some stores added
of Congress]
cache to their import departments by
dubbing them with French names, such as Saks’ Salon Moderne or Wana-
maker’s Coin de Paris (Milbank 1996, pp. 96 97).
Once taboo, cosmetics counters also sprang up in department stores
because makeup was no longer just for actresses and women of ill repute,
featuring cosmetics by Max Factor and nail polish by Revlon (Charles
Revson). Not only was makeup sold in department stores, but a new type of
retail business quickly grew in the 1920s and 1930s: the beauty salon. The
new short hairstyles and penchant for makeup and nail polish translated
into big business for beauty salons. These salons provided haircuts, marcel
or permanent waves, manicures, facials, and cosmetic lessons for women.
The concept of chain stores brought well-known retail names into re-
gional and national prominence as major retailers expanded beyond their
urban downtown locations. Discount stores, such as Woolworth’s, provided
an outlet for fashionable dress and cosmetics in smaller towns and rural
areas and to lower socioeconomic groups in urban centers. Woolworth’s
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THE BUSINESS OF FASHION
and ‘‘five & dime’’ stores proved to be vital resources for fashionable dress
to large segments of the U.S. population throughout the Great Depression.
Even during the Great Depression, the American population was
becoming increasingly mobile, with continued access to and improvements
in the automobile. The automobile allowed rural families, whose only ave-
nue for acquiring fashionable goods had been mail-order catalogs, to
‘ drive to town’ and shop for the latest fashions. In response, the mail-
order giant Sears, Roebuck and Company opened their first store in their
Chicago-based mail-order facility in 1925. Sears, a trusted name in rural
areas, was so successful with the first store that seven additional stores
were opened by the end of the year, a fact that inspired Sears’ catalog
competitor Montgomery Ward to do the same. In a time of economic
depression, while many businesses were closing, by 1933, Sears, Roebuck
and Company operated 400 stores, with store sales exceeding catalog
sales. Mail order, although still a major segment of the retail industry, had
diminished in importance as individuals now had the means, thanks to
the automobile, to view and try on fashions first hand.
1940S
Major department stores continued to be popular with consumers. They
were a fixture in American popular culture. Even the 1947 movie Miracle
on 34th Street features the Gimbels department store in New York.
After the war, department stores began a shift in location. They had
traditionally been located in the center of city shopping districts. As
Americans moved out to the suburbs after the war, the department stores
followed their customers. They began building stores in suburban shop-
ping malls, a trend that continued for the remainder of the century.
They carried designer fashions at affordable prices with some custom
tailoring. Line-for-line copies of designer garments were available in
many department stores. They were attractive because women could rarely
afford the originals, which were extremely expensive as a result of import
duties during the war.
Most department stores offered store credit cards to consumers. This
was not a new practice but, in the 1940s, credit card sales began to exceed
the other popular form of credit: installment plans. Credit cards made it
easier for customers to purchase the latest fashions, because they did not
need to save up to afford the latest trend.
Larger stores began to use market research to improve sales in their
stores. They learned through personal contacts what teenage girls wanted.
Special shops and departments were set up within department stores, and
Fashion Communication
161
market research was conducted by hosting panels and discussion groups.
Buyers for major stores began relying on teen magazines and Hollywood.
After the war, women became the main purchasers of the family’s cloth-
ing, even their husbands’ clothing.
Department, boutique, and specialty stores placed more emphasis on
marketing campaigns and drawing in customers. Easter, Christmas, and
back-to-school campaigns were launched each year with newspaper adver-
tisements. Easter was an especially important clothing buying event,
because the whole family needed appropriate and fashionable clothing and
hats for church on Easter Sunday.
Smaller retailers continued to thrive. These were usually family-run
businesses, and they were located in large and small cities and towns. This
type of retailer included men’s stores, women’s stores, family stores, and
specialty shops.
FA S H I O N C O M M U N I C AT I O N
1900S AND 1910S
Designer Paul Poiret was not only an innovator of fashion design but also
of fashion communication. He developed inventive new ways to dissemi-
nate his ideas in an age that had limited means of communication com-
pared with the modern day. He hired illustrator Paul Iribe to help him
create fashion booklets called Les Robes de Paul Poiret. He launched fash-
ion shows of his designs at garden parties and theme parties, and he went
on lecture tours across Europe to promote his fashions.
Fashion and ladies’ magazines we
re a primary form of communicating
fashion to women. They were inexpensive and readily available to most
American women. Initially, fashions within these magazines were hand-
drawn pictures of several women within an appropriate surrounding, such
as a garden or a parlor. They illustrated several women to show the variety
in styles. When illustrating accessories, the magazines would often group
together a variety of the same type of accessory, such as brooches, under-
garments, hats, or fans. Another typical type of illustration isolated por-
tions of a garment. For example, a series of sleeves might be shown. In
the 1910s, it was not uncommon to see additional illustrations of the back
of a garment. These magazines often included articles about fashions in
addition to illustrations. As the century progressed, photographs were
often reproduced in the magazines.
The periodical Women’s Wear Daily was established in 1910 as an out-
growth of the men’s wear publication Daily News Record. Despite its early
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THE BUSINESS OF FASHION
existence, it did not gain prominence until the 1950s and 1960s. Vogue
magazine transformed fashion communication beginning in 1909, when it
was purchased by Conde Nast, and the company slowly began to grow
the magazine.
Mail-order catalogs and pattern catalogs provided another source of
fashion communication. Both of these featured a variety of details about
fashionable silhouettes, fabrics, and trims. They also were an important
style resource for women who purchased ready-to-wear clothing or made
their own clothing.
During the early years of the twentieth century, the United States’
wealthiest class was a visible and publicized component of American soci-
ety. The elite were often featured in newspapers through both articles and
photographs. When women in the uppermost social circles went to parties
and events, their fashions were often described in social sections of the
newspapers. This provided another helpful resource for women looking
for the most up-to-date fashion information, because the social elite’s
fashions usually came directly from the haute couture designers in Paris.
1920S AND 1930S
The increased popularity of photography and the use of photographs in
magazines increased the pace at which fashion trends were disseminated